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Gift  of  the  Panama  Canal  Museum 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2013 


http://archive.org/details/engineerOOaver 


Copyright,  Harris  &  Ewlng",  Washington,  I).  O. 

COLONEL  GEORGE  WASHINGTON  GOETHALS, 

THE  BUILDER  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL, 

Who  might  he  classed  as  the  most  absolute  despot  on  earth,  although  a  benevolent  one,  and  the 
squarest  boss  a  man  ever  worked  for.  He  is  a  thorough  engineer,  a  righteous  judge,  and  a  stern 
executioner  rolled  into  one.  He  realizes  that  man  is  but  human,  and  for  simple  infractions  of 
the  rules,  is  always  ready  to  give  the  offender  another  chance,  but  there  will  be  no  second  time. 
A  man  of  prodigious  memory,  quick  to  grasp  details  be  they  trivial  affairs  of  every  day  life,  or 
questions  of  moment;  an  ear  for  every  one,  and  the  friend  of  all.  The  American  Nation  owes 
much  to  the  men  who  rendered  yeoman  service  on  the  Isthmus;  they  cannot  be  too  highly  re- 
warded. It  owes  much  to  that  peerless  leader,  George  Washington  Goethals,  who,  for  over  six 
long  years  has  kept  the  goal  steadily  in  sight,  who  has  never,  for  a  single  instant,  permitted  his  de- 
termination to  waver,  who  has  fought  inch  by  inch  until  every  obstacle  has  been  overcome,  and 
who,  through  his  forceful  personality  and  sense  of  justice,  has  compelled  the  admiration  of  every- 
one with  whom  he  has  come  in  contact.    Col.  Goethals  was  made  a  Major-General  March  4,  1915. 


IHE  GREATEST  ENGINEERING  FEAT 
IN  THE  WORLD 


AT 


PANAMA 


Authentic  and  Complete  Story  of  the  Building   and 

Operation  of  the  Great  Waterway  —  the 

Eighth  Wonder  of  the  World. 

With  a  Graphic  Description  of  the 

Panama  -  Pacific    International    Exposition 

the  Official  Celebration  of  the  Completion  of  America's  Triumph 
at  Panama,  the  Gigantic  Undertaking  Successfully 

Carried  Out  under  the  Supervision  of 
COL.    GEORGE    W.   GOETHALS,  U.  S.  A. 


By    RALPH     EMMETT    AVERY 

TRAVELER,  AUTHOR  AND  LECTURER 

Edited   by  WILLIAM   C.   HASKINS 
of  THE  CANAL  RECORD 


Profusely  Illustrated  With  Photographs  in  Half-tone  and  Color. 


LESLIE.  JUDGE   COMPANY 
NEW  YORK 


LATIN  AMERICAN  COLLECTION 

yfvjIVFPQITV  OP  PI  OP1HA 


Special 

Revised  and  Enlarged  Edition 

Copyright,  1915, 

by  Ralph  E.  Avery 


COPYRIGHT.      MCMXIII. 
BY  RALPH  E.  AVERY 


Dedicated  to  the 

Men  of  Brain  and  Brawn  of  Our  Country,  Whose 

Matchless    Skill    and    Inspiring    Courage 

Made  the  Dream  of  Ages  a  Reality 

in  the  Construction  of  the 

Panama   Canal 


SUNRISE,  SUNSET  AND  MOONLIGHT  SCENES  ON  PANAMA  BAY. 

During  February  and  March  the  moon  is  particularly  bright,  due  to  the  clear  atmosphere 
which  prevails  in  the  height  of  the  dry  season.  On  certain  brilliant  evenings  it  is  possible  to 
read  in  the  moonlight.  The  cloud  effects  are  perfect  and  the  rainbows  magnificent.  One  of  the 
prettiest  effects,  which  happens  but  rarely,  is  a  rainbow  at  night. 


FOREWORD 

HE  eighth  wonder  of  the  world,  the  crowning 
achievement  of  man's  greatest  undertaking 
is  the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal  by 
the  Government  of  the  United  States. 

Doubtless  for  centuries  to  come  the  world-wonders 
of  the  Panama  Canal  will  be  told  in  story  and  in  picture, 
but  the  eloquence  of  the  theme  itself  will  never  be  ex- 
hausted while  reverence  for  mighty  deeds  finds  lodg- 
ment in  the  hearts  of  men. 

Recognizing  as  much  as  one  man  could  the  magni- 
tude and  importance  of  the  work  being  performed  on 
the  Isthmus,  the  Author  for  almost  two  years  dwelt 
among  the  activities  of  this  gigantic  enterprise,  and  in 
these  pages  authentically  presents  to  the  reader  his 
chronicles  of  the  step-by-step  progress  of  the  construc- 
tion from  beginning  to  completion,  as  well  as  the  suc- 
cessful installation  of  the  world's  majestic  Avaterway 
from  ocean  to  ocean. 

The  successful  opening  on  February  20,  1915,  of 
the  Panama-Pacific  International  Exposition  at  San 
Francisco,  in  celebration  of  the  completion  of  the  world's 
most  stupendous  achievement — the  Panama  Canal — has 
called  for  and  received  in  this  work  a  graphically  writ- 
ten and  illustrated  detailed  account  of  this  great  con- 
temporaneous event. 

Clothed  as  it  is  in  a  beauty  of  typography  and  art 
illustrations  in  keeping  with  the  grandeur  of  the  subject 
it  treats,  the  publishers  feel  assured  of  the  book's  cordial 
reception  on  the  part  of  an  appreciating  public. 


TO  THE  PUBLISHERS . 


I  have  taken  much  pleasure  in  looking  over  and 
examining  your  handsomely  illustrated  book  giving  the 
storv  of  "THE  GREATEST  ENGINEERING  PEAT  IN  THE  WORLD  AT 

PANAMA." 

The  Panama  Canal  is  indeed  the  greatest  engineer- 
ing work  of  modern  times  and  is  of  tremendous  interest  to 
the  American  people  on  account  of  it's  commercial  and  military 
value . 

Commercially,  it  shortens  the  voyage  between  the 
eastern  and  western  coasts  of  our  own  country  and  brings  us 
in  nearer  contact  with  South  America.    This  will  have  a  ' 
tendency  to  bind  the  two  continents,  North  and  South  America, 
into  closer  commercial,  relations. 

For  the  world  at  large,  it  will  establish  a  new 
trade  route  for  all  countries  and,  make  the  Caribbean  Sea  a 
new  Mediterranean. 

Prom  the  naval  standpoint,  it  will  prove  to  be  a 
great  means  of  National  Defense  to  us  because  it  will  prac- 
tically double  the  efficiency  of  our  fleet. 

The  history  of  such  an  important  undertaking  should 
be  familiar  to  every  American,  both  young  and  old,  and  I 
would  commend  the  attractive  and  condensed  form  in  which  you 
have  placed  the  large  amount  of  information  in  your  illus- 
trated book  as  well  worthy  of  favorable  consideration  by  the 
public. 

Yours  very  truly, 

Karoh27th1915-  f^i    5h*^  ^ 


FROM  CONGRESSMAN  GEORGE  EDMUND  FOSS. 
FORMERLY  CHAIRMAN  OF  THE  NAVAL  COMMIT. 
TEE  IN  THE  HOUSE  OF  REPRESENTATIVES,  U.  S.  A. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

FOREWORD 

CHAPTER  I.     DISCOVERY  AND  SETTLEMENT  9 

Early  Discoverers — The  First  Settlement — Discovery  of  the  South  Sea — Balboa's  Unfortunate  End — Settlement 
of  Old  Panama — Spain's  Power  Spreads — Period  of  the  Great  Trade — The  Scotch  Bubble. 

CHAPTER  II.     RAIDS  OF  THE  BUCCANEERS 21 

Drake's  Expedition — Fall  of  Old  Panama — Other  Attempts. 

CHAPTER  III.     PROPOSED  CANAL  ROUTES    28 

Tehuantepec — Atrato  River  and  Tributaries — Calidonia — San  Bias — Nicaragua — Panama. 

CHAPTER  IV.     THE  PANAMA  RAILROAD 32 

First  Work  on  the  Panama  Railroad — Completion  of  the  Enterprise — Early  Rates  Nearly  Prohibitive — 
Establishment  of  Steam  Ship  Service — Concessionary  Rights  and  Privileges — Changes  in  Ownership — The 
New  Main  Line — Busiest  Short  Line  in  the  World. 

CHAPTER  V.     THE  FRENCH  FAILURE 45 

DeLesseps,  Promoter — Procuring  the  Concession — DeLesseps'  Plan — Inaugurating  the  Work — French  Labor 
Force — LaFolie  Dingier — The  Sick  Poorly  Cared  for — The  Crash — The  Second  or  New  Company — French 
Aid  to  American  Project. 

CHAPTER  VI.     THE  AMERICAN  TRIUMPH 69 

Organization  of  the  Canal  Commission — Taking  Possession,  Change  in  Chief  Engineer — The  New  Com- 
mission— Commission  Again  Reorganized — The  Purchasing   End. 

CHAPTER  VII.     MAKING  THE  ISTHMUS  HEALTHFUL    80 

The  Fight  on  the  Mosquito — Cleaning  House — Results  Have  Justified  the  ( lost — Rigid  Quarantine  Maintained. 

CHAPTER  VIII.     AN  ARMY  OF  WORKERS 95 

Getting  the  Force  Together — Keeping  the  American  Employes  Contented — Plant — Monthly  ( 'ost  of  Allow- 
ances— Feeding  and  Clothing  the  <  anal  Army — The  Canal  Zone — The  Postal  Service — Postal  Savings  Bank, 
a  Popular  Institution — Zone  Customs  Service — The  Zone  "Dry" — Keeping  Order — Guarding  Against  Fires — 
Educational  Facilities — The  Law  Department — Paying  the  Canal  Force — Accounts — No  Graft. 

CHAPTER  IX.     CONSTRUCTING  THE  LOCK  TYPE  CANAL. .   135 

The  Canal  a  Water  Bridge — The  Dam  at  Gatun — Gatun  Spillway — Gatun  Lake — Dams  on  the  Pacific  Side. — 
The  Locks — Guards  Against  Accidents — How  the  Locks  Were  Built — Making  the  Dirt  Fly — Dredging — Cutting 
Through  the  Divide — Across  the  Isthmus  in  a  Hydrobiplane — 70,000,000  Pounds  of  Dynamite — Slides, 
Eloquent  Argument  Against  Sea  Level  Project. 

CHAPTER  X.     AUXILIARY  PLANS  AND  PROJECTS 213 

Acquisiton  of  Private  Lands — Tolls — Protecting  the  Canal — Fort  Grant  Military  Reservation — Fort  Amador 
Military  Reservation — Fort  Sherman  Military  Reservation — Fort  Randolph  Military  Reservation — Fort  De 
Lessens  Military  Reservation — Breakwaters — Lighting  the  Canal — Port  Facilities — Dry  Docks — Permanent 
Repair  Shops — Government  Coal  and  Fuel  Oil  Business — Private  Coal  and  Fuel  Oil  Storage — Bonded 
Warehouses — New  Floating  Equipment — Permanent  Villages  and  Buildings — Permanent  Organization — Wire- 
less Communication — Beautifying  the  Canal — Permanent  Administration  Building,  Balboa — Cost  of  the  Canal. 

CHAPTER  XI.     FUTURE  CANAL  TRAFFIC 247 


CONTENTS—  (Continued) 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  XII.     REPUBLIC  OF  PANAMA    258 

The  Panama  Flag — National  Hymn  of  the  Republic  of  Panama — The  Reconstruction  Period — "The  Land  of 
the  Cocoanut  Tree" — Government  is  Progressive — Revenues — National  Currency — Public  Improvements — Free 
Public  School  System — Panama  Richly  Endowed  by  Nature — The  People — The  Indians  of  Panama — The 
Guaymies — The  Chocoes — Ancient  Civilization  of  Chiriqui — Sightseeing — Bathing — Panama  Hats — Canal 
Zone  Souvenir  Stones — The  Panama  Lottery — Panama  to  Hold  National  Exposition. 

CHAPTER   XIII.     THE   LAND    DIVIDED— THE    WORLD 
UNITED 313 

Destruction  of  the  Dikes — Letting  Water  Into  Culebra  Cut — "Gamboa  is  Busted" — Gatun  Locks,  the  First  in 
Actual  Operation — The  First  Practical  Lockage — First  Lockage  at  Pacific  End — From  the  Sea  to  Culebra 
Cut —  Earthquakes — Making  a  Passage  Through  Cucaracha  Slide — Secretary  Garrison's  Visit — The  Official 
Opening — First  Boat  Through  the  Canal. 

CHAPTER  XIV.    THE  MONUMENTAL  TASK  COMPLETED  336 

CHAPTER  XV.     PANAMA-CALIFORNIA  EXPOSITION....   343 

CHAPTER    XVI.      PANAMA-PACIFIC    INTERNATIONAL 
EXPOSITION 347 


ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  FOUR  COLORS 

Colonel  George  Washington  Goethals Facing  Title  Page 

The  Famous  Flat  Arch  in  the  Ruins  of  Santo  Domingo  Church,  Panama 

City  

One  of  the  Driveways  in  Ancon  Hospital  Grounds 

Culebra  Cut,  Looking  North  From  Gold  and  Contractor's  Hills 

One  of  the  Great  Locks  of  the  Canal  Under  Construction 

A  Typical  Street  in  the  Native  Village  at  Chorrera,  Panama 

A  Group  of  Cuna  Cuna  Indians,  Panama 

Tug  Gatun,  First  Boat  Passing  Through  Gatun  Locks,  Sept.  26,  1913.  .  .  . 
Map  of  the  Canal  and  the  Canal  Zone  and  Interesting  Facts  and  Figures .  .  . 


HE  history  of  the  Panama  Canal  begins  with  the  search  for  a  western 
waterway  to  the  Indies,  and  for  fame  and  gold,  by  those  hardy 
adventurers  who  followed  in  the  wake  of  Columbus.  These  men, 
fresh  from  the  Moorish  wars,  and  equipped  for  a  struggle  with  Italy 
which  did  not  come  to  pass,  looked  for  new  fields  to  conquer.  Nothing  suited 
them  better  than  the  discovery  of  a  New  World  peopled  by  heathens  waiting 
to  be  converted  by  the  sword  to  the  Christian  faith,  after  their  gold,  of  which 
they  seemed  to  have  plenty,  was  stripped  from  them  to  fill  the  empty  coffers 
of  Spain. 

This  search  by  the  followers  of  Columbus  was  fairly  successful,  so  far  as 
fame  and  gold  were  concerned  and,  although  no  direct  water  route  was  found 
to  the  Indies  to  the  west,  it  naturally  led  to  the  settlement  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama,  the  narrow  strip  of  land  separating  the  two  great  oceans  and  forming 
the  connecting  link  between  North  and  South  America.  The  establishment 
of  settlements  on  both  coasts  and  the  short  distance  between  them,  led  to  the 
building  .of  crude  roads  and  trails  for  the  early  mule  trains.  These  trails  led 
to  the  construction  of  a  railroad,  and  the  railroad  to  a  ship  canal,  for  trade 
follows  settlers,  and  water  is  the  natural  highway  between  nations.  The  story 
of  the  Isthmus  is,  therefore,  in  a  measure,  the  evolution  of  transportation  routes. 

EARLY    DISCOVERERS 

The  first  European  to  sail  along  the  coast  of  Panama  was  Rodrigo  de 
Bastidas,  who  sailed  from  Cadiz  in  October,  1500,  and  first  touched  the 
continent  near  the  island  of  Trinidad,  and  from  there  went  west  as  far  as 
Nombre  de  Dios.  With  him  on  that  voyage  was  Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa,  who, 
later,  was  to  discover  the  great  South  Sea,  and  Juan  de  la  Cosa,  who  had  sailed 
with  Columbus  on  his  second  voyage  and  was  considered  one  of  the  most  able 
mariners  of  his  day. 

Columbus  sailed  from  Cadiz  on  his  fourth  and  last  voyage  in  search  of  a 
passageway  to  the  Indies  in  May,  1502.  On  this  voyage  he  skirted  the  shores 
of  Honduras  and  Costa  Rica,  to  Almirante  Bay  and  Chiriqui  Lagoon  on  the 
coast  of  Panama.     At  the  latter  place  he  was  told  by  the  Indians  that,  if  he 

[9] 


J^AM-D    piVIDED  —  qTlB  WOI5LL>D>  TTKITED 


would  continue  his  course  to  the  east,  he  would  soon  come  to  a  narrow  place 
between  the  two  seas,  and  this  led  him  to  believe  that  his  search  for  a  strait  was 
nearing  success;  that  he  would  soon  pass  into  the  Indian  Ocean  and  thence 
around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  Spain,  surpassing  the  achievement  of  Vasco 

de  Gama,  the  Portuguese,  who  had 
already  sailed  around  Africa  (1497- 
1498)  in  his  search  for  a  water  route  to 
the  Indies.  Columbus  continued  on  his 
way  and  passed  the  site  of  the  present 
city  of  Colon  at  the  Atlantic  entrance  to 
the  Canal,  and  on  November  2,  1502, 
arrived  at  a  harbor  18  miles  northeast, 
which  he  named  Porto  Bello,  signifying 
beautiful  port.  He  stayed  there  a  week 
stormbound,  and  then  continued  on 
past  Nombre  de  Dios,  thus  overlapping 
the  voyage  of  Bastidas.  He  gave  up 
his  unsuccessful  search  for  a  strait 
eventually,  and  took  to  the  more  prac- 
tical work  of  hunting  for  gold.  His 
attempt  to  found  a  colony  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Rio  Belen,  southwest  of  Colon, 
failed,  and  on  May  1,  1503,  he  sailed 
from  the  shores  of  the  Isthmus.  He 
died  on  May  20,  1506,  still  believing 
that  he  had  discovered  the  eastern 
shores  of  Asia.  This  belief  was  shared 
by  all  the  early  voyagers  until  the  dis- 
covery of  the  Pacific  Ocean  in  1513. 

THE    FIRST    SETTLEMENT 


Statue  of  Columbus  and  Indian  Girl.  Pre- 
sented to  General  Mosquera  of  Colombia  in 
1868,  by  the  Empress  Eugenie,  and  afterwards 
turned  over  to  Count  DeLesseps.  Now  occu- 
pies a  commanding  position  on  Cristobal  Point. 


After  the  unsuccessful  attempt  of 
Columbus  to  found  a  settlement  in 
Castilla  del  Oro  (Golden  Castile),  as  the  Isthmus  was  termed,  two  colonizers 
were  sent  out  by  King  Ferdinand.  One  of  these,  Diego  de  Nicuesa,  a  Spanish 
nobleman,  more  fitted  for  the  court  than  for  a  command  in  the  wilderness,  was 
given  control  of  all  the  land  between  Cape  Gracias  a  Dios,  Nicaragua,  and  the 
Gulf  of  Uraba,  or  Darien,  the  eastern  limit  of  the  present  Republic  of  Panama. 
The  other  was  Alonso  de  Ojeda,  who  accompanied  Columbus  on  his  second 
voyage,  and  in  addition  had  made  two  trips  to  the  continent  independently. 
Ojeda  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  land  east  and  south  of  the  Gulf  of  Uraba 
called  Nueva  Andalucia.  Both  of  these  expeditions  outfitted  and  sailed  from 
Santo  Domingo  in  November,  1509. 

Associated  with  Ojeda  were  Juan  de  la  Cosa,  as  lieutenant  in  the  future 
government,  and  a  lawyer  named  Bachelleer  Enciso,  who  furnished  most  of 
the  money  to  equip  the  expedition.  It  was  arranged  that  Enciso  should  remain 
at  Santo  Domingo  to  collect  recruits  and  supplies,  procure  another  ship,  and  join 
Ojeda  later  at  the  proposed  colony. 

Ojeda  landed  near  the  present  city  of  Cartagena,  Colombia,  founded  in 
1531.     Here  he  attacked  and  overcame  the  Indians  with  a  part  of  his  force, 

[  10  ] 


CTKB   TyAN-D    DIVIDED —C7TKE:  WOBLkD>  TTKITED 

but  in  following  up  his  victory,  his  men  became  scattered,  and  all  those  who  had 
landed  were  killed,  with  the  exception  of  himself  and  one  other.  Among  the 
killed  was  the  veteran  Juan  de  la  Cosa.  Ojeda  then  entered  the  Gulf  of 
Uraba  and  founded  the  town  of  San  Sebastian  on  the  eastern  shore,  but  was 
soon  compelled  to  return  to  Santo  Domingo  to  obtain  men  and  supplies.  He 
left  the  new  colony  in  charge  of  his  lieutenant,  Francisco  Pizarro,  famous  in  his- 
tory as  the  conqueror  and  despoiler  of  Peru,  with  the  understanding  that  if  he  did 
not  return  within  50  days  the  colonists  should  decide  among  themselves  the  best 
course  to  follow.  He  finally  reached  Santo  Domingo,  after  suffering  ship- 
wreck and  many  hardships  on  the  island  of  Cuba,  and  found  that  Enciso  had 
departed  long  before  with  abundant  supplies  for.  the  colony,  but  he  was  unable 
to  recruit  another  force  to  follow. 

Pizarro  and  his  men,  suffering  for  lack  of  food,  waited  anxiously  and  in 
vain  for  the  return  of  Ojeda,  and  then  abandoned  the  colony  and  sailed  for 
Cartagena.  Here  they  found  Enciso  with  reinforcements  and  provisions. 
With  Enciso  was  a  stowaway  in  the  person  of  Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa.  Enciso 
insisted  on  Pizarro  and  his  men  returning  with  him  to  San  Sebastian.  On  their 
arrival,  they  found  the  settlement  destroyed  by  Indians.  They  were  without 
food,  and  at  the  suggestion  of  Balboa,  who  had  sailed  along  these  shores  with 
Bastidas,  they  crossed  the  Gulf  of  Uraba,  where  it  was  reported  the  Indians 
were  less  warlike  and  provisions  could  be  obtained.  It  was  necessary,  however, 
for  them  to  defeat  a  band  of  Indians  under  a  powerful  chief  named  Cemaco, 
who  disputed  their  landing,  but  they  obtained  the  much  needed  supplies,  and 
founded  the  settlement  of  Santa  Maria  de  la  Antigua,  the  first  on  the  Isthmus. 
They  were  now  in  the  territory  which  had  been  assigned  by  the  King  to  Nicuesa 
and,  consequently,  had  no  right  there.     The  ambitious  Balboa  took  advantage 


Columbus  Island  where  Christopher  Columbus  stopped  to  repair  and  scrape  the 
bottom  of  his  ships  before  proceeding  on  to  Spain. 

\    11    1 


T^AM-D    piVIDED  ~CTHE  WOBJ^_  TTNITED 

of  this  circumstance  and  the  fact  that  Enciso  was  disliked  by  his  men,  for  the 
reason  that  he  allowed  no  private  trading  with  the  Indians,  to  depose  him,  and 
asked  Nicuesa  to  come  and  take  charge  of  the  colony. 


November  2,  1502,  Columbus  arrived  at  this  harbor,  18  miles  northeast  of  Colon,  -which  he 
named  Porto  Bello,  signifying  beautiful  port.  Rock  for  the  concrete  used  in  the  locks  at  Gatun 
was  obtained  at  this  point. 

Nicuesa  had  already  sailed  from  Santo  Domingo,  taking  along  with  him 
about  700  colonists.  During  the  voyage,  a  terrific  storm  arose,  wrecking  some 
of  his  ships  and  causing  the  loss  of  400  lives.  In  the  tempest  the  ships  became 
separated;  some  of  them  reached  the  coast  at  the  mouth  of  the  Belen  River, 
and  others  the  mouth  of  the  Chagres  River.  After  collecting  his  men,  Nicuesa 
left  the  Belen  River,  and  after  doubling  Manzanillo  Point  shortly  landed, 
saying:  "We  will  remain  here  in  the  name  of  God."  This  was  the  site  of  the 
town  of  Nombre  de  Dios,  the  oldest  existing  settlement  on  the  Isthmus.  During 
American  canal  times,  the  sand  for  the  concrete  in  Gatun  Locks  was  obtained 
here,  and  in  1910  and  1911,  the  sand  dredge  cut  through  the  hulks  of  two  old 
ships,  believed  to  be  relics  of  the  days  of  Nicuesa.  The  dredge  pumps  also 
drew  up  bullets  and  other  small  articles. 

Nicuesa's  situation  was  desperate,  as  he  was  without  arms  or  provisions, 
but  fortunately  there  arrived  shortly  his  lieutenant  Colmenares,  who  brought 
supplies,  as  well  as  information  concerning  the  new  settlement  at  Antigua. 
Nicuesa  declared  his  intention  of  going  there  and  taking  all  the  gold  found  by 
Ojeda's  men  as  rightfully  belonging  to  him.  News  of  his  intention  reached 
Antigua  before  he  did  and,  on  his  arrival,  he  was  met  by  an  armed  mob, 
secretly  urged  on  by  Balboa,  which  cast  him  adrift  in  a  leaky  brigantine  along 
with  17  followers  who  had  remained  faithful  to  him.  They  were  never  heard 
of  again.  Of  the  two  expeditions,  one  was  now  left  at  Antigua,  and  of  the  two 
men  sent  by  the  King  of  Spain  to  colonize  the  mainland,  both  were  gone. 
Balboa  the  stowaway  ruled  in  Darien,  March  1,  1511. 

DISCOVERY    OF    THE    SOUTH    SEA 

The  first  move  Balboa  made  on  finding  himself  in  charge  of  the  colony  was 
to  secure  his  position  by  persuading  Enciso  and  those  who  had  led  the  mob  in 

[  12  ] 


<^THE   Tv\N-D    DIVIDED CTTHB  WO;^g^_IINJTED 

the  attack  on  Nicuesa  to  return  to  Spain.  Knowing  that  they  would  immedi- 
ately go  to  the  King  and  ask  that  he  be  dispossessed,  he  started  in  to  obtain  the 
gold  which  he  knew  the  King  thought  more  of  than  all  else,  and  to  make  new 
discoveries  which  would  help  his  cause.  The  gold  he  obtained  from  the 
Indian  chiefs  of  the  Darien .  It  was  made  the  price  of  peace,  and  Balboa 
showed  his  shrewdness  by  making  allies  of  the  Indians  after  he  had  obtained 
their  treasure.  Such  an  alliance  he  made  with  Careta,  the  cacique  of  Coyba, 
who  after  his  village  had  been  sacked  by  the  Spaniards,  left  with  Balboa  one  of 
his  daughters  as  a  hostage.  Balboa  accepted  the  Indian  maiden,  of  whom 
he  became  very  fond  and,  although  thev  were  never  married  according  to  the 
Christian  rites,  she  considered  herself  his  wife. 

Balboa  started  from  Antigua  on  September  (>,  1513,  to  cross  the  Isthmus 
and  find  the  great  sea  to  the  south,  of  which  the  Indians,  knowing  the  cupidity 
of  the  Spaniards,  had  told  him  glowing  tales  of  the  riches  of  the  great  race  of 
people  which  inhabited  its  shores.  Fighting  the  different  tribes  which  he  met 
on  the  way,  subduing  and  making  friends  with  them,  on  September  25,  he 
reached  a  hill  in  Darien  from  which  it  was  said  the  South  Sea  could  be  seen. 
Halting  his  men,  Balboa  made  the  ascent  alone,  and  was  the  first  European  to 
gaze  upon  this  heretofore  unknown  ocean.  Six  days  later,  September  29,  1513, 
four  hundred  years  ago,  he  waded  into  the  ocean  and  took  possession  in  the 
name  of  the  sovereigns  of  Spain.  This  was  in  the  Gulf  of  San  Miguel,  so  named 
for  the  reason  that  it  was  discovered  on  St.  Michael's  Day.  He  also  performed 
a  similar  ceremony  when  he  reached  a  point  of  land  at  the  entrance  to  the  gulf. 
Balboa  subdued  the  local  Indian  chiefs,  who  gave  him  presents  of  gold  and  also 
many  pearls  from  the  Pearl  Islands  a  few  miles  off  the  shore,  and  confirmed 
the  rumors  of  a  powerful  and  rich  nation  to  the  south.     The  Pearl  Islands,  so 


A  family  of  Indians,  Darien. 

[  13] 


JiAM-D    piVIDED (THB  WOCLDD,  TTKITED 

named  by  Balboa,  could  be  plainly  seen,  but  he  did  not  visit  them  at  that  time 
on  account  of  the  roughness  of  the  sea  and  the  frailty  of  the  available  Indian 
canoes.  He  named  the  largest  of  the  islands,  Isla  Rica,  which  is  now  known 
as  San  Miguel,  or  Rev  Island. 


Nombre  de  Dios,  the  oldest  existing  settlement  on  the  Isthmus.      Sand  was  obtained 
here  for  the  cement  used  in  the  Gatun  Locks. 

Balboa  returned  triumphant  to  Antigua  after  an  absence  of  about  four 
months.  His  messenger  telling  of  his  great  discovery  did  not  reach  the  King, 
unfortunately,  until  after  that  monarch,  listening  to  Enciso's  complaints,  had 
sent  out  a  new  governor  to  take  charge  of  the  colony. 

balboa's  unfortunate  end 

The  new  governor  was  named  Pedro  Arias  de  Avila,  commonly  called 
"Pedrarias  the  Cruel,"  which  nickname  he  won  in  the  New  World  by  his 
method  of  extorting  gold  from  the  Indians.  With  Pedrarias  was  Hernando  de 
Soto,  who  was  later  to  discover  the  Mississippi  River,  and  Diego  de  Almagro, 
who  was  to  become  the  partner  of  Pizarro  in  the  conquest  of  Peru.  Unlike 
Balboa,  Pedrarias  did  not  try  to  make  friends  with  the  Indians,  but  in  many 
instances  repaid  the  hospitality  which  they  extended  to  him  as  a  friend  of 

Balboa  with  the  utmost  treachery, 
destroying  their  villages,  killing 
women  and  children,  and  selling 
those  who  survived  into  slavery. 
He  undid  what  Balboa  had  been  in 
a  fair  way  of  accomplishing,  that  is, 
the  settlement  of  Darien,  for  the  In- 
dians were  everywhere  aroused  and 
repaid  cruelty  with  cruelty  as  often 
as  an  opportunity  was  presented. 
Pedrarias  strove  to  establish 
a  line  of  posts  for  communication 
between  the  two  oceans  in  accord- 
ance with  the  ideas  of  Balboa,  but 

Shrines  are  common  along  the  waysides  and  at  without  success.  The  first  of  these 
the  entrance  to  villages,  but  this  one  has  been  was  located  On  the  Atlantic  Coast 
placed   in   a   hollow   tree.     The   photographer    dis-  ,  ,  ,     0       .     "  ^ 

covered  it  near  Gorgona.  at    a    place    named    Santa    Cruz. 

r  ii  i 


T^Slffi-v-PIVIDED CTpHE:  WOJ^^P, 


In  the  meantime,  the  King  had  recognized  Balboa's  discovery  with  a 
commission  as  Adelantado  of  the  South  Seas  and  Viceroy  of  the  Pacific  coast, 
an  empty  title,  as  he  was  subject  to  the  orders  of  Pedrarias.  Pedrarias,  jealous 
of  Balboa's  achievement,  held  up  this  commission 
and  kept  Balboa  fighting  for  his  liberty  in  the  court 
of  Antigua  on  trumped  up  charges.  Finally  Balboa 
made  an  alliance  with  Pedrarias  by  promising  to 
marry  one  of  his  daughters,  who  was  at  that  time 
in  Spain,  and  went  a  few  miles  up  the  coast  to  a 
place  called  Acla,  between  Antigua  and  Santa  Cruz, 
where  he  established  a  settlement  and  had  timbers 
cut  and  shaped  which  could  be  readily  built  into 
ships  with  which  to  explore  the  new  sea  which  he 
had  discovered.  These  timbers  were  carried  across 
the  Isthmus  by  Indian  slaves  and  were  set  up  in 
San  Miguel  Bay. 

While  at  the  Pearl  Islands,  from  where  he  made 
several  short  cruises,  Balboa  heard  of  the  coming 
of  a  new  governor  to  supersede  Pedrarias.  Think- 
ing this  governor  might  be  hostile  to  his  plans,  he 
sent  messengers  to  Antigua  to  see  whether  or  not  he 
had  arrived.  If  he  had,  he  instructed  the  messengers 
to  return  without  allowing  their  presence  to  become 
known,  and  he  would  then  leave  on  his  voyage  of 
discoverv   before   orders   for   his   recall    could    be 


delivered.      His  messengers  went  to   Antigua   and 


!*■£'- 

rx 

■~~ 

&\  -*vr 

iv          jm 

- 

■W^.<<ilbA>    fci 

A  wayside  cross,   or  shrine. 
Some  of  these  are  very  old. 


found  Pedrarias  still  in  charge,  for  the  new  governor 

had  died  on  his  arrival.     One  of  them,   however, 

told   Pedrarias  that  Balboa  was  contemplating  treachery  and  the  founding  of 

an   independent  colony  on  the  Pacific  coast.     The  bitterness  and   jealousy 


Village  of  San  Miguel  on  Rey  Island,  one  of  the  larger  of  the  Pearl  Island  Group. 

[  15  ] 


Jv\M-D    piVIDED  —  crrHE:  WQBUD,  TTKITED 

of  Pedrarias  for  Balboa  again  came  to  life,  and  he  sent  Francisco  Pizarro, 
who  was  later  to  finish  the  work  Balboa  had  planned  to  do,  to  bring  him  back 
to  Acla.  At  Acla,  Balboa  was  given  a  mockery  of  a  trial  for  treason,  and  was 
beheaded  with  four  companions  in  the  latter  part  of  1517.  Second  only  to 
the  discovery  of  the  South  Sea  was  the  demonstration  of  the  practicability  of 
an  Isthmian  transit. 

SETTLEMENT    OF    OLD    PANAMA 

Pedrarias  seeing  the  advantage  of  a  settlement  on  the  new  ocean  as  an 
outfitting  station  for  future  exploring  expeditions,  crossed  the  Isthmus  and,  on 
August  15,  1519,  founded  Panama,  situated  about  five  miles  east  from  the  new 
city.  The  name  "Panama"  is  supposed  to  have  come  from  an  Indian  word 
meaning  a  place  abounding  in  fish,  and  tradition  relates  that  the  town  was  built 
on  the  site  of  an  Indian  fishing  village.  In  the  same  year  the  Atlantic  port  was 
transferred  to  Nombre  de  Dios,  directly  north  of  old  Panama,  and  a  few  years 
later  Antigua  and  Acla  were  abandoned  to  the  Indians. 


Some  of  the  interior  villages  have  no  jails  stout  enough  to  hold  a  prisoner, 
so  the  stocks  are  resorted  to. 

On  September  15,  1521,  the  settlement  at  Panama  was  made  a  city  by 
royal  decree,  and  the  first  bishopric  in  the  Americas  was  removed  there  from 
Antigua.  The  new  governor  sent  out,  opportunely  for  Pedrarias,  died  on  his 
arrival,  as  did  several  others  who  followed,  and  Pedrarias  ruled  until  the  arrival 
of  Pedros  de  los  Rios,  who  took  charge  on  July  30,  1526.  Before  his  arrival, 
Pedrarias  took  refuge  in  Nicaragua  where  he  had  already  established  a  settle- 
ment. 

Spain's  power  spreads 

Following  this  period  in  Isthmian  history  many  parties  set  out  inland  to 
explore  the  country,  and  outposts  were  located  in  the  provinces  of  Chiriqui  and 
Veraguas.  These  explorations  were  made  in  accordance  with  the  desires  of 
Charles  V,  who  took  a  great  interest  in  the  exploration  of  the  South  Sea  and  the 
discovery  of  a  strait  connecting  it  with  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  After  he  came  to, 
the  throne  of  Spain  in  1516,  he  charged  the  governors  of  his  American  colonies 
to  examine  the  coast  line  from  Darien  to  Mexico  for  a  possible  waterway. 

In  accordance  with  this  policy,  Gil  Gonzales  de  Avila  was  sent  out  from 


[  16 


cr?lB   |v\ND    DIVIDED <^THK  WQRL>D,  TTHITED 

Spain  in  1521,  with  instructions  to  make  a  search  along  the  coast  for  the  western 
opening  of  a  strait.  Gonzales  dismantled  and  transported  his  ships  across  the 
Isthmus  and  rebuilt  them  on  the  Pacific  side.  In  January,  1522,  he  sailed  from 
Panama  bay  and  went  as  far  as  the  Bay  of  Fonseca,  where  he  landed  and 
discovered  Lake  Nicaragua.  On  this  voyage  Gonzales  met  men  sent  out  on 
similar  service  by  Cortez,  who,  later,  established  a  transit  route  across  the  Isth- 
mus of  Tehuantepec  in  Mexico,  following  pretty  closely  the  present  railroad. 
This  route  was  started  in  much  the  same  manner  as  the  one  across  Darien, 
through  the  necessity  of  transporting  suitable  lumber  from  the  Atlantic  coast  of 
the  Isthmus  to  build  ships  with  which  to  explore  the  Pacific  coast.  When 
Pedrarias  learned  of  the  discovery  of  Lake  Nicaragua,  he  immediately  laid 
claim  to  it,  and  as  the  country  was  rich  in  gold,  established  a  city  at  Granada 


Old  Fort  at   Porto  Bello. 

near  the  shores  of  the  lake  after  subduing  the  Indians.  In  1529,  Captain 
Diego  Machuca  thoroughly  explored  the  lake  and  discovered  its  eastern  outlet, 
the  San  Juan  River.  Sailing  down  this  stream  he  finally  reached  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  and  sailed  along  the  coast  until  he  arrived  at  Nombre  de  Dios,  thus 
opening  up  another  route  across  the  American  Isthmus. 

The  first  extensive  explorations  to  the  south  were  the  voyages  of  Pizarro 
and  Almagro  in  1524,  which  ended  in  the  conquest  of  Peru.  In  1527,  an 
expedition  sailed  up  the  Rio  Grande,  carried  their  canoes  across  the  divide 
at  Culebra  to  a  tributary  of  the  Chagres,  down  which  they  sailed  to  its  mouth, 
thus  going  over  the  present  Canal  route. 

PERIOD    OF    THE    GREAT    TRADE 

Permanent  settlements  were  now  located  at  Nombre  de  Dios  and  at 
Panama,  and  between  these  two  points  was  established  a  paved  trail  or  "royal 

[  17  ] 


T^AM-D    piVIDED C7TKB  ^ORDg^n^Il™ 

highway,"  for  the  commerce  across  the  Isthmus  at  that  time  was  steadily  on 
the  increase,  making  Panama  a  place  of  mercantile  importance.  In  1534,  a 
route  by  water  for  boats  and  light  draft  vessels  was  established  from  Nombre 
de  Dios  along  the  coast  and  up  the  Chagres  River  to  the  head  of  navigation  at 
Cruces.  From  Cruces  there  was  another  trail  to  the  city  of  Panama.  Over 
these  trails  pack  trains  carried  on  the  trade,  the  river  being  used  in  the  wet 
seasons,  and  when  the  attacks  of  the  Indians  and  Cimaroons,  (negro  slaves, 
who  rebelled  and  were  outlawed),  became  too  frequent  on  the  overland  trail. 
This  trade  consisted  of  gold  and  ornaments  stripped  from  the  temples  of  the 
Incas,  gold  from  the  mines  of  Darien  and  Veraguas  on  the  Isthmus,  silver  from 
Bolivia,  pearls,  and  also  wool,  indigo,  mahogany,  dye  woods,  cocoa,  and 
tobacco,  all  bound  for  Spain,  for  which  the  colonists  received  clothing  and  food- 


The  three  ancient  bells  of  Cruces.  This  town  was  one  of  the  oldest  on  the  Isthmus,  and  was 
the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Rio  Chagres  before  the  days  of  the  railroad.  Abandoned  in  1913 
on  account  of  its  being  in  the  lake  area. 

stuffs  in  return.  For  nearly  two  hundred  years  the  trails  from  Panama  to  the 
towns  of  Nombre  de  Dios  and  Porto  Bello  were  the  richest  trade  routes  in  the 
world.  Some  of  this  trade  even  originated  across  the  Pacific  in  the  Philippines 
and  the  Indies.  Later,  after  the  period  of  the  great  trade,  1550-1750,  and  up 
to  the  time  of  the  Panama  railroad,  the  part  water  and  part  overland  trail  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Chagres  to  Cruces,  34  miles,  and  thence  to  Panama,  18  miles, 
was  used  by  the  colonists  when  California  and  Oregon  were  opened  to  settle- 
ment, and  by  the  gold  seekers  in  California  in  the  days  of  '49. 

After  Nombre  de  Dios  was  destroyed  in  1597  by  Sir  Francis  Drake,  the 
royal  port  was  changed  to  Porto  Bello,  17  miles  to  the  southwest.  This  change 
was  beneficial,  as  Nombre  de  Dios  was  always  unhealthful,  while  Porto  Bello 
had  a  better  harbor  and  was  nearer  to  the  mouth  of  the  Chagres  and  Panama. 

[  18  ] 


CTHJE;  TvAN-P  .  DIVIDED  —  CTVlEj  WOEkPi 

Porto  Bello  became  one  of  the  strongest  fortified  of  the  Spanish  settlements  in 
the  New  World.  Here,  came  the  Spanish  galleons  once  a  year  to  collect  the 
King's  treasure,  and  to  bring  supplies  for  the  colonists,  and  here,  each  year,  on 
the  arrival  of  the  ships,  the  merchants  would  congregate  to  take  part  in  a  big 
fair  which  was  held  during  the  annual  visit  of  the  fleet. 

The  town  is  situated  on  a  bay  about  a  mile  and  a  half  long  by  2,500  feet 
wide,  and  the  ruins  of  five  of  the  six  forts  which  guarded  it,  as  well  as  an  old 
custom  house,  can  still  be  seen,  although  partly  covered  with  jungle  growth. 
One  of  the  six  forts  was  on  the  side  of  the  hill  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  bay 
from  the  old  town  and  where  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  has  been  quarry- 
ing rock  for  the  past  four  vears  for  Canal  work,  and  it  was  dug  away  by  steam- 
shovels.     After  Porto  Bello  became  the  royal  port  on  the  Atlantic,  the  Chagres 


Mouth  of  the  Chagres  River.     The  old  fort  on  the  left  and  one  of  the  turrets  on  the  right. 

River  and  the  Cruces  trail  came  into  general  use  as  a  highway,  although  there 
was  also  an  overland  road,  and  to  protect  this  route  from  pirates  who  were 
becoming  bold  enough  to  attack  fortified  towns,  Fort  San  Lorenzo  was  built  in 
1601  at  the  river  mouth. 

THE    SCOTCH    BUBBLE 

England  lost  its  opportunity  in  1698-1700  to  gain  a  foothold  in  the  Isthmian 
trade  by  failing  to  lend  its  aid  to  the  colonization  scheme  of  ^Yilliam  Patterson, 
a  Scotch  financier,  who  had  already  founded  the  Bank  of  England.  Patterson's 
plan,  which  eventually  cost  about  2,000  lives  and  $100,000  in  money,  was 
designed  to  break  up  the  monopoly  of  the  British  East  India  Company  in  the 
Oriental  trade  by  founding  a  colony  on  the  shores  of  Darien,  and  opening  up  a 
free  trade  route  across  the  Isthmus  from  Acla  to  the  Gulf  of  San  Miguel,  over 
the  same  route  taken  by  Balboa  nearly  200  years  before.     Permission  for  the 

[  ™) 


CTHB  TvAN-P  ,  DIVIDED -^CT-aEL^ypg^B,  TTXITED 

formation  of  the  company  with  this  end  in  view  was  obtained  from  King  William. 
His  approval,  however,  was  later  withdrawn  at  the  instigation  of  the  East  India 
Company,  when  it  realized  that  its  monopoly  was  in  jeopardy,  and  instructions 
were  issued  to  the  governors  of  the  British  colonies  in  the  West  Indies  and 
North  America  to  withhold  any  aid  to  the  Scots  who  had  already  departed  for 
Darien.  The  opposition  of  the  East  India  Company  forced  the  new  project 
to  return  all  the  money  subscribed  for  stock  in  England,  and  to  raise  the 
necessary  funds  in  Scotland  only. 

On  November  1,  1698,  three  ships  and  two  tenders  containing  1,200  men 
reached  the  Darien  from  Leith,  and  founded  the  town  of  New  Edinburgh  on 
the  Gulf  of  Calidonia,  near  Acla.  Here  they  were  welcomed  by  the  San  Bias 
Indians  who  saw  in  them  future  allies  against  the  Spaniards.  But  the  Scots 
had  no  intention  of  fighting,  much  to  the  disappointment  of  the  Indians,  although 
they  must  have  known  that  their  invasion  would  be  resisted  by  the  Spaniards. 
The  first  expedition  managed  to  stay  eight  months,  during  which  time  their 
numbers  were  sadly  reduced  by  sickness  and  famine.  On  June  20,  1699, 
two  hundred  and  fifty  survivors,  with  Patterson  who  had  gone  out  to  the  colony 
as  a  volunteer,  and  whose  wife  and  son  had  died  there,  left  for  New  York,  which 
place  they  reached  on  August  13.  Meanwhile,  the  company  at  home,  not 
knowing  of  the  abandonment  of  the  colony,  sent  out  a  second  band  of  300 
recruits.  This  party  arrived  at  New  Edinburgh  on  August  13,  the  same  day 
that  their  predecessors  reached  New  York.  Finding  the  half-completed  Fort 
St.  Andrew  deserted,  they  immediately  left  for  Jamaica  with  the  exception  of 
a  few  men  who  insisted  upon  remaining.  A  third  expedition  consisting  of 
four  ships  and  1,300  men  was  sent  out  from  Scotland,  and  reached  New  Edin- 
burgh on  November  30,  although  rumors  of  the  failure  of  the  first  attempt  had 
been  received. 

At  last  the  Spaniards  determined  to  oust  the  invaders  who,  unable  to 
accomplish  much  on  account  of  internal  bickerings,  the  opposition  of  England, 
and  a  high  death  rate,  sent  out  a  fleet  of  ships  from  Cartagena  on  February 
25,  1700,  to  invest  the  port  by  sea,  while  a  land  force  blockaded  it  in  the  rear. 
On  March  31,  after  many  sorties  against  the  Spanish  forces,  the  colonists 
surrendered  and  were  allowed  to  depart  with  honors.  The  colony  had  been 
reduced  to  about  360  persons,  and  these  were  so  sick  and  feeble  that  it  is  said 
the  Spaniards  had  to  help  them  aboard  their  ships  and  set  the  sails  for  them. 


'A  Nation  given  to  the  world, 

A  giant's  task  begun, 
Show  what  our  Uncle  Sam  can  do 

In  an  orbit  of  the  sun. 
O  great  indeed  is  our  Uncle  Sam 

And  his  greatness  ne'er  shall  cease! 
For  greatest  of  all  his  conquests  won, 
Are  his  victories  of  peace! " 

— Gilbert. 

[20] 


PAIN  monopolized  the  early  trade  with  its  colonies  and  this  policy 
eventually  lost  its  control  of  the  countries  of  Central  and  South 
America.  The  first  direct  result  was  the  entering  of  English,  French 
and  Dutch  free  traders  and  later,  buccaneers  and  pirates,  all  of  whom 
ranged  up  and  down  the  coast  of  the  Spanish  Main  preying  upon  commerce 
and  even  attacking  the  fortified  towns. 

Up  to  the  time  Sir  Henry  Morgan  became  Governor  of  Jamaica,  after  the 
sack  of  Panama  in  1671,  there  was  very  little  difference  between  free  traders, 
privateers,  buccaneers  and  pirates,  their  object  being  the  same, — the  easy 
acquisition  of  gold  and  other  loot  by  preying  upon  the  commerce  of  Spain. 
From  1550  to  175Q,  the  Isthmian  trade  route  was  open  to  such  attacks.  After 
the  sack  of  Panama,  however,  England  endeavored  to  put  a  stop  to  piracy  in 
the  West  Indies  (Jamaica  was  the  outfitting  station  for  many  ships  sailing  under 
commissions  granted  by  the  governor  who  received  a  share  in  the  spoils),  and 
after  that  time  the  pirates  were  hunted  as  a  common  enemy,  and  they  in  turn 
preyed  upon  the  shipping  of  all  nations. 

The  result  of  the  depredations  of  these  freebooters  finally  forced  Spanish 
shipping  to  give  the  waters  of  the  Indies  a  wide  berth,  and  to  take  the  longer 
route  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan  to  the  colonies  on  the  Pacific,  although 
this  trade  was  already  beginning  to  decline,  partly  through  the  failure  of  the 
colonies  to  develop  after  the  easily  won  treasures  of  the  Incas  began  to  give  out, 
and  partly  through  the  decadence  of  Spain  as  a  sea  power. 

The  free  traders,  who  finally  developed  into  pirates,  were  generally 
welcomed  by  the  colonists,  unofficially,  as  Spain  was  not  a  manufacturing 
country  and  was  unable  to  supply  their  needs,  and  because  it  was  greatly  to  their 
benefit  to  obtain  goods  of  a  better  quality  upon  which  no  taxes  had  been  paid 
to  the  King.  The  traders  were  forbidden  entry  into  the  ports,  and  were  com- 
pelled to  smuggle  their  goods  in  at  convenient  points  along  the  coast  and  in 
secret  harbors.  The  custom  of  treating  these  men  as  pirates  when  caught, 
naturally  led  them  to  protect  themselves  and,  when  the  opportunity  offered, 
to  retaliate  in  kind,  and  they  finally  became  buccaneers  or  pirates  in  name  as 
well  as  in  fact.     The  name  buccaneer  was  given  to  the  free  traders  by  the 

f  21   j 


CTHB   TiANP    DIVIDED GTn&  WORlJgJ_NITED 


boucaniers,  men  engaged  in  supplying  them  with  smoke-cured  meat  for  their 
voyages. 

drake's  expedition 

The  first  Englishman  to  make  his  name  feared  by  the  Spanish  in  the 
West    Indies    was    Sir  Francis   Drake.      In   1568,   Sir   John    Hawkins,    with 

an  English  fleet,  entered  the  harbor 
_  ~~  ~  . --.fV:|     of    Vera    Cruz,    Mexico,    to    trade 

«^K££  with    the    Spaniards.      He  was  re- 

ceived by  the  officials  of  the  port 
in  a  friendly  manner  and  invited  to 
anchor.  As  soon  as  his  ships  were 
anchored  under  the  guns  of  the 
forts,  he  was  attacked  and  all  his 
ships  destroyed,  with  the  exception 
of  two  which  managed  to  escape, 
one  belonging  to  himself  and  the 
other  to  his  cousin  Francis  Drake. 
Drake  returned  to  England  and 
endeavored  to  obtain  satisfaction 
for  his  losses  through  his  govern- 
ment, but  was  unable  to  do  so.  He 
then  decided  to  collect  his  own 
indemnity  by  attacking  Spanish 
shipping  as  he  had  been  attacked. 
He  obtained  Letters  of  Marque  from 
Queen  Elizabeth,  and,  in  1571-1572, 
made  two  preliminary  voyages  to 
the  West  Indies,  principally  to  pre- 
pare for  future  raids  and  to  learn 
how  the  Spaniards  handled  the  golden  harvest  from  Peru.  In  1572,  he  re- 
turned with  two  ships,  in  the  holds  of  which  were  stored  the  parts  of  three 
small  sailing  boats,  and  on  July  29,  having  put  the  boats  together,  he  attacked 
and  captured  Nombre  de  Dios  where  the  King's  treasure  house  was  at  that 
time  located.  He  would  have  made  a  rich  haul  of  the  gold  waiting  for  the 
arrival  of  the  fleet  from  Spain  had  he  not  been  wounded  in  the  assault  on  the 
town. 

Drake  then  made  his  headquarters  on  the  coast,  and  made  many  forays 
on  shipping,  even  taking  ships  from  under  the  guns  of  Cartagena.  With  the 
help  of  the  Indians,  who  since  the  days  of  Pedrarias  were  always  ready  to  help 
the  enemies  of  Spain,  and  of  the  Cimaroons  (as  escaped  negro  slaves  who  had 
banded  together  in  the  jungle  and  waged  continual  war  on  the  Spanish  pack 
trains  were  called),  he  crossed  the  Isthmus  to  the  Pacific,  in  time  to  see  a  Peru- 
vian plate  fleet  riding  at  anchor  in  the  bay  of  Panama.  He  planned  to  ambush 
the  pack  train  carrying  the  treasure  from  this  fleet  near  Yenta  Cruz,  or  Cruces, 
but  failed  to  obtain  any  gold,  the  Spaniards  aware  of  his  presence,  sending  a 
train  of  mules  bearing  provisions  in  advance.  He  captured  and  sacked 
Cruces  but,  as  this  was  merely  a  stopping  place  for  the  pack  trains,  he  procured 
very  little  booty.  Another  ambush  outside  of  Nombre  de  Dios  was  more 
successful,  his  men  taking  away  all  the  gold  they  could  carry  and  burying 

[22] 


Sir  Henry  Morgan. 


CTHB  IyANP    DIVIDED— crrnE^  WOGLkD,  ttkited 

several  tons  of  silver  in  the  vicinity.  In  1573,  he  returned  to  England  and 
started  to  organize  a  fleet  to  go  to  the  Pacific,  but  John  Oxenham  who  had  been 
with  him  when  he  crossed  the  Isthmus,  forestalled  him  in  his  desire  to  be  the 
first  Englishman  to  sail  upon  those  waters. 

John  Oxenham  crossed  the  Isthmus  in  1575,  with  the  help  of  the  Indians, 
over  the  same  route  traversed  by  Balboa,  and  launched  a  small  boat  on  the 
Pacific.  He  stayed  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Pearl  Islands  taking  several  small 
Spanish  prizes,  and  finally  captured  one  of  the  treasure  galleons  from  Peru. 
Oxenham  and  his  crew  were  finally  captured  by  the  Spaniards  and  put  to  death. 

Drake  returned  to  the  West  Indies  on  November  15,  1577,  sailed  through 
the  Straits  of  Magellan,  swept  the  west  coast  of  South  America  as  far  north  as 
California,  without  attacking  the  city  of  Panama,  crossed  the  Pacific,  passed 
around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  landed  in  England  in  1580,  having  gone 
completely  around  the  world.  In  1595,  he  again  returned  to  the  Isthmus,  and, 
with  Sir  John  Hawkins,  captured  and  burned  Nombre  de  Dios,  and  started 
across  the  Isthmus  to  attack  the  city  of  Panama,  but  the  Spaniards  had  barri- 
caded the  royal  road  so  effectively  that  the  English  gave  up  the  attempt.  They 
went  to  Porto  Bello  instead,  and  just  previous  to  the  attack  on  that  place, 
January  28,  1596,  Drake  died  and  was  buried  at  the  mouth  of  the  bay. 

Drake's  example  was  followed  by  William  Parker,  who  attacked  and  sacked 
Porto  Bello  in  1602.  From  the  time  of  Drake,  Porto  Bello  had  little  rest  from 
attack;  its  forts  were  rebuilt  only  to  be  again  destroyed. 

FALL    OF    OLD    PANAMA 

Henry  Morgan  was  one  of  the  first  of  the  pirates  to  attack  the  mainland. 
In  June,  1668,  he  plundered  Porto  Bello,  and  at  that  time  sent  a  message  to 


h~ 


» 


■  ^>fc»fc> 


-r^xgfik.'. 


Section  of  wall  and  Spanish  cannon,  with  embrasure,  in  old  fort  at  Porto  Bello. 

f  23  1 


JiAN-D    piVIDED  -^crrRE  WORkD>  TTKITED 

the  Governor  of  Panama  that  he  would  return  in  a  short  time  to  take  that  city. 
As  he  promised,  he  returned  to  the  Isthmus  two  years  later,  sent  an  advance 
force,  which  attacked  and  captured  Fort  San  Lorenzo  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Chagres,  placed  a  garrison  there  and  at  Porto  Bello,  and  started  up  the  Chagres 
and  overland  with  1,200  men,  the  Spaniards  retreating  lief  ore  him.  It  took  the 
Englishmen  nine  days  to  make  the  journey,  and  they  suffered  greatly  for  want 
of  food  as  the  Spaniards  in  their  retreat  on  Panama  laid  waste  to  the  country. 
Panama  was  captured  on  January  28,  1671.  Before  the  city  fell  fire  broke  out 
and  the  place  was  entirely  ruined.  Morgan  was  accused  of  having  set  fire  to 
the  town,  but  it  was  more  likely  that  it  was  caused  by  a  spark  blown  into  an 
open  powder  magazine,  which  had  been  ordered  destroyed  by  the  Governor, 
Don  Juan  Perez  de  Guzman.  However,  Morgan  stayed  in  the  ruins  nearly  a 
month,  collecting  booty,  and  also  plundered  the  neighboring  islands  and  the 
surrounding  country.  He  then  returned  to  San  Lorenzo,  and  sailed  to  Jamaica 
with  the  largest  share  of  the  booty,  leaving  his  companions  to  leave  the  Isthmus 
as  best  they  could.  The  attack  on  Panama  was  made  when  England  was  at 
peace  with  Spain,  and  the  British  Government  was  forced  to  suppress  buccan- 
eering in  Jamaica  on  account  of  the  storm  of  protest  aroused.  Morgan  was 
made  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Jamaica,  was  later  knighted  and  became 
governor  of  the  island,  in  which  capacity  he  did  good  work  in  suppressing 
piracy.  His  appointment  would  appear  to  have  been  made  by  the  King  on  the 
theory  that  it  takes  a  thief  to  catch  a  thief. 

OTHER    ATTEMPTS 

Although  Drake  and  Morgan  were  no  longer  feared,  the  Isthmus  was  not 
yet  free  from  the  raids  of  numerous  other  pirates,  French  and  English,  who 


Wall  of  the  old  fort  at  Porto  Bello,  showing  entrance,  and  watch  tower. 

[  24] 


Jv\N-D    DIVIDED  ^CT-HE  WQUIjD,  TTXITED 

attacked  Porto  Bello,  crossed  the  Isthrnus,  and  raided  up  and  down  the  coast 
of  the  Pacific.  Captain  John  Coxon  plundered  Porto  Bello  in  1679,  and  in 
the  following  year  crossed  the  Isthmus  to  the  Pacific  in  company  with  Captain 
Richard   Sawkins,    Bartholomew   Sharp,    Peter   Harris   and   Edmund   Cook, 


hfe4^&t 

^ 

m 

m  vw '  • 

1 

A 

~ 

1 

i 
i 

>  ■  i 

3 

1 

- 

2 -    -                '      ' 

Scene  in  the  village  of  Chagres  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  that  name. 

accompanied  by  over  300  men.  They  crossed  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  guided 
by  the  Indians,  in  April,  1680,  and  attacked  Santa  Maria,  an  outpost  on  the 
Tuyra  River.  Not  finding  the  expected  gold  at  Santa  Maria,  they  voyaged 
in  canoes  and  in  two  barks,  captured  by  Captains  Sharp  and  Cook,  to  Panama. 
Arriving  off  Panama,  they  were  attacked  by  three  Spanish  ships  near  the 
island  of  Perico.  In  the  fight  which  ensued  on  April  23,  1680,  the  English 
were  victorious,  but  thev  failed  to  attack  the  citv  owing;  to  a  disagreement 
between  themselves  as  to  who  should  be  leader,  although  they  stayed  in  the 
vicinity  many  days  picking  up  prizes.  Captain  Sawkins  was  killed  later  in  an 
attack  on  the  mining  town  of  Pueblo  Nuevo,  in  the  Province  of  Veraguas. 
Captain  Coxon  had  already  left  with  his  men  to  recross  the  Isthmus  to  the  boats 
left  on  the  Atlantic,  and  Captain  Harris  died  from  wounds  received  in  the 
battle  of  Perico,  leaving  Captains  Sharp  and  Cook  to  continue  their  voyages 
in  the  South  Sea.  Captain  Sharp  returned  to  England  where  he  was  tried  for 
piracy,  but  escaped  hanging  on  account  of  lack  of  evidence.  From  1680  to  1688, 
pirate  raids  wiped  out  every  settlement  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  Darien.  In  1688, 
England  became  the  ally  of  Spain,  and  the  pirates  ceased  operations  for  the 
time  being. 

War  broke  out  between  England  and  Spain  in  1738,  and  in  1739  Porto 
Bello  was  again  captured  and  destroyed  by  Admiral  Edward  Vernon  of  the 
British  Navy.  In  1740,  Vernon  captured  Fort  San  Lorenzo,  and  in  1742,  he 
again  took  Porto  Bello  and  prepared  an  assault  on  the  new  city  of  Panama 
against  which  a  fleet  was  going  around  the  Horn  under  command  of  Captain 
Anson.     However,  Vernon's  men  began  to  fall  sick,  so  he  gave  up  the  attempt 

[  25  ] 


,^BF£i  DGE^qyj:  rgrqw$»£> 


The  tower  is  the  most  important  remaining  evidence  of  the  greatness  of  the  first  city  of 
Panama,  destroyed  by  Morgan  in  1671.  It  is  located  about  six  miles  southeast  of  Panama  City. 
The  wealth  of  Peru  was  transported  over  the  old  masonry  bridges  centuries  ago. 


[26] 


CTHB  TvAND  .  DIVIDED crpnE:  WO BULjg>U KITED 

on  Panama  and  went  to  Cartagena  instead,  at  which  place  he  met  with  a  decisive 
defeat.  Anson  learning  of  this  event,  left  to  attack  Manila  and  the  new  city  of 
Panama  was  again  saved. 

The  last  of  the  Spanish  galleons  from  Peru  during  the  latter  part  of  1739 


Pile  of  cannonballs  at  Fort  San  Lorenzo,  used  by  the  early  Spaniards  in  resisting 
the  attacks  of  the  buccaneers. 

found  upon  its  arrival  at  Panama  that  Porto  Bello  was  being  attacked  by 
Admiral  Vernon,  so  it  returned  to  Guayaquil  and  sent  its  treasure  to  Cartagena 
over  the  trail  from  Quito  to  Bogota.  Thus  the  commerce  of  the  Spanish 
galleons  across  the  Isthmus  ceased,  and  the  gradual  decay  of  the  towns  on  the 
Isthmus  wherein  lived  the  merchants  and  traders  set  in. 


'From  sacked  Porto  Bello  redhanded  they  came, 
All  bloodstained  from  conquest  unworthy  the  name, 
To  the  mouth  of  the  Chagres,  where,  high  on  the  hill, 
San  Lorenzo  kept  guard,  to  plunder  and  kill 
Its  devoted  defenders,  who  courageously  fought 
For  homes,  wives  and  children,  accounting  as  naught 
Their  lives  held  so  precious,  so  cherished  before, 
Could  they  drive  the  fierce  pirates  away  from  their  shore. 
Three  days  they  repulsed  them,  but  to  find  every  night 
The  foe  still  upon  them  in  ne'er-ending  fight. 
Their  arms  could  not  conquer  the  powers  of  hell ! 
San  Lorenzo  surrendered — ingloriously  fell ! 
Burned,  famished  and  bleeding  from  many  a  wound, 
They  lay  while  their  stronghold  was  razed  to  the  ground." 

Gilbert. 

[  27] 


HE  project  of  connecting  the  Atlantic  with  the  Pacific  has  attracted  the 
attention  of  the  civilized  world  since  the  discovery  of  the  Isthmus. 
In  the  years  1534  to  1536,  studies  were  made  under  the  direction  of 
the  then  governor  of  Panama,  Pascual  Andagoya,  in  compliance  with 
a  royal  decree,  dated  February  20,  1534,  for  a  ship  canal  across  the  Isthmus  by 
cutting  from  the  Chagres  River  to  the  headwaters  of  the  Rio  Grande,  but  the 
idea  was  abandoned  on  account  of  the  excessive  cost. 

With  a  revival  of  interest  in  the  subject,  many  routes  were  suggested  and 
many  surveys  were  made  at  different  points  where  the  width  of  the  American 
Isthmus  was  found  to  be  favorable,  or  where  rivers  and  lakes  were  found  that 
might  be  utilized  as  a  possible  passageway.  Of  the  many  routes  proposed,  it 
has  been  found  that  the  one  across  Nicaragua,  utilizing  the  San  Juan  River  and 
Lake  Nicaragua,  and  that  at  Panama  along  the  line  of  the  Panama  railroad, 
utilizing  the  valley  of  the  Chagres  River  and  the  Rio  Grande,  are  the  only 
practicable  ones.  Of  the  others,  those  which  gained  the  most  attention  and 
which  were  given  the  most  study  were  across  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  in 
Mexico,  and  three  in  Panama,  the  Darien,  or  Atrato  River,  the  San  Bias,  and 
the  Calidonia  Bay  routes, 

TEHUANTEPEC 

The  Tehuantepec  route,  where  the  Spaniards  under  Cortez,  after  the 
conquest  of  Mexico,  built  a  road  across  the  Isthmus,  is  the  best  location,  geo- 
graphically, for  a  canal,  it  being  so  much  closer  to  the  Pacific  and  Gulf  ports  of 
the  United  States,  while  the  distance  from  New  York  is  practically  the  same  as 
from  Panama.  However,  the  summit  level  at  this  point  was  found  to  be  in  the 
neighborhood  of  700  feet  and  very  broad,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  a  sufficient  supply 
of  water  could  be  obtained  for  it  even  if  it  could  be  materially  lowered  by  exca- 
vation. When  the  French  were  at  work  on  the  Panama  project,  Captain  James 
B.  Eads  selected  this  place  for  the  location  of  a  ship  railway  with  large  cars  to 
transport  ships  from  one  ocean  to  the  other.  This  never  got  beyond  the 
"scheme"  stage,  although  at  that,  time  it  was  considered  practicable  by  engineers. 

[  28  ] 


JEL  TvANP    DIVIDED— crrHB  WOBJkDi  TTKITED 


There  is  now  an  ordinary  standard-gage  railroad  engaged   at  this  point  in 
carrying  transcontinental  freight. 

ATRATO    RIVER    AND    TRIBUTARIES 

Various  projects  have  been  proposed  to  utilize  the  Atrato  river,  which  flows 
almost  directly  north  about  200  miles  into  the  Gulf  of  Darien,  at  the  point  where 
the  Isthmus  joins  the  continent  of  South  America,  and  several  of  its  tributaries, 
which  approach  the  Pacific  coast  very  closely.  There  is  an  Indian  legend  that 
canoes  can  be  carried  for  a  short  distance  from  the  headwaters  of  the  Atrato  to 
another  river  flowing  into  the  Pacific.  The  Atrato  is  a  silt-bearing  river  and  has 
a  considerable  fall,  and  is  not  in  itself  adapted  to  the  use  of  ocean-going  ships. 
It  would  necessitate  continual  dredging  for  a  hundred  miles  to  canalize  it,  and  a 
cut  through  the  continental  divide  much  greater  than  the  Cut  at  Culebra.  The 
streams  flowing  into  the  Pacific  are  little  more  than  mountain  torrents.  On 
this  account  this  route  has  not  been  considered  with  as  much  favor  as  the  more 
northerly  ones.  There  is  a  widely  circulated  story  that  King  Philip  III,  in  the 
period  1616  to  1619,  issued  an  edict  at  the  request  of  Pere  Acosta  forbidding 
further  consideration  of  the  project  on  the  ground  that  the  will  of  God  was  made 
manifest  by  the  fact  that  He  had  created  an  isthmus  instead  of  a  strait,  and  that 
it  would  be  impiety  for  man  to  put  asunder  what  God  had  joined.  Probably 
a  more  reasonable  objection  was  that  a  ship  canal  would  make  the  Spanish 
colonies  too  easily  accessible  to  their  enemies.  The  policy  of  King  Philip  was 
adhered  to  for  over  200  years  after  his  death  in  1698. 

CALIDOXIA 

The  Calidonia  route  is  where  Balboa  crossed  to  the  Pacific  in  1513,  and  is 
the  one  which  William  Patterson  chose  in  1698  for  a  line  of  transit  across  the 
Isthmus  to  control  the  trade  of  the  Pacific  with  the  east.  This  route  starts 
from  Calidonia  Bay  on  the  Atlantic  where  Patterson's  colony  of  New  Edinburgh 
was  located,  to  San  Miguel  Bay  on  the  Pacific.  At  first  this  appears  to  be  an 
ideal  location  for  a  ship  canal  on  account  of  the  short  distance,  35  miles,  between 
the  two  oceans.  It  was  advocated  by  Dr.  Edward  Cullen  of  Dublin  in  1850. 
He  claimed  that  the  summit  level  on  this  line  was  not  over  150  feet.  It  was 
partly  explored  by  Air.  Lionel  Grisborne,  an  English  engineer,  in  1852,  and  he 
reaffirmed  the  claim  of  Dr.  Cullen.  Later  explorations,  among  them  those  of 
Lieutenant  Isaac  G.  Strain,  U.  S.  N.,  in  1854,  and  by  the  United  States  Darien 
expedition  in  1870,  failed  to  confirm  this  low  altitude.  It  was  found  that  the 
summit  level  is  at  least  1,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Although  the  Isthmus  is  very 
narrow  at  this  point,  the  excavation  required  is  so  great  that  it  was  proposed  to 
build  a  tunnel  4.2  miles  long  through  the  mountains  through  which  ships  might 
pass.     This  project  has  long  been  considered  impossible. 

SAX    BLAS 

The  San  Bias  route  from  the  Gulf  of  San  Bias  to  the  Bavano  River,  which 
flows  into  the  Pacific  about  15  miles  from  the  Pacific  entrance  of  the  present 
canal,  is  across  the  narrowest  part  of  the  Isthmus,  the  distance  being  about  30 
miles  from  shore  to  shore.  The  distance  from  the  Atlantic  tidewater  to  tide- 
water in  the  Bavano  River  is  about  two-thirds  of  that  distance.  This  route  was 
explored  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Frederick  M.  Kelley  in  1857,  and  subse- 
quently by  an  expedition  under  Commander  Thomas  Oliver  Self  ridge,  Jr., 

[  29  ] 


qrnB   Jv\N-D    DIVIDED-—  ^THB  WOBLkD,  JTKITED 

U.  S.  N.,  in  1870.  The  difficulty  here,  as  on  the  Calidonia  route,  lies  in  the 
height  of  the  summit,  to  cross  which  tunnels  from  eight  to  ten  miles  long  were 
also    proposed. 

The  result  of  all  these  explorations  and  surveys  resulted  in  the  conviction 
that  no  other  route  compared  in  practicability  with  that  of  Panama  and  Nica- 
ragua. 

NICARAGUA 

This  route,  utilizing  Lake  Nicaragua  and  the  San  Juan  River,  which  flows 
out  of  it  into  the  Atlantic,  was  used  as  an  isthmian  transit  by  the  Spaniards  as 
early  as  1529.  It  became  the  subject  of  investigation  as  a  possible  Canal  route 
in  1825,  when  the  newly  federated  state  of  Central  America  advised  the  United 
States  that  it  would  encourage  any  such  project  by  Americans.  Several 
surveys  were  made,  but  no  construction  work  was  attempted.  In  1850-1852 
an  American,  O.  W.  Childs,  organized  a  company  under  an  agreement  with 
Nicaragua,  and  established  a  transit  route,  partly  by  water  and  partly  by  stage 
road.  This  transit  company  also  made  surveys  for  a  ship  canal  along  this  route. 
It  forfeited  its  concession  in  1858  without  doing  any  work  on  the  proposed  canal. 
Later  surveys  were  made  by  the  United  States  under  Commander  E.  P.  Lull, 
and  in  1889  canal  construction  was  begun  when  the  Maritime  Canal  Company 
of  Nicaragua,  composed  of  Americans,  was  formed  under  a  concession  from 
Nicaragua  and  Costa  Rica.  Financial  difficulties,  however,  stopped  the  work 
and  the  company  failed  in  1893.  For  some  years  after  efforts  were  made  to 
induce  the  United  States  Government  to  finance  the  project,  with  the  result 
that,  in  1895,  Congress  provided  for  a  board  of  engineers  to  ascertain  the 
feasibility  and  cost  of  a  canal  at  this  point.  This  board,  appointed  by  President 
Cleveland,  consisted  of  Colonel  William  Ludlow,  U.  S.  A.,  Civil  Engineer  M. 


Swinging  bridge,  Chame. 

r  30 1 


CTFiB  TyANP  .  DIVIDED  —<?Tft&  WOBLkD,  UNITED 

T.  Endicott,  U.  S.  N.,  and  Civil  Engineer  Alfred  Noble.  They  reported  that 
the  Canal  was  feasible,  but  recommended  further  surveys  and  investigations. 
Accordingly  a  commission  was  appointed  by  President  McKinley,  which  con- 
sisted of  Rear  Admiral  J.  G.  Walker,  Colonel  Peter  C.  Hains,  and  Lewis  M. 
Haupt.  Before  the  work  of  this  commission  was  completed  Congress  provided, 
in  1899,  for  increasing  it  for  the  purpose  of  making  surveys,  comparisons  and  a 
thorough  examination  of  all  possible  routes  from  Tehuantepec  to  the  Atrato 
River.  The  Commission,  which  became  known  as  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission,  was  now  reinforced  by  the  appointment  of  Colonel  O.  H.  Ernst, 
Alfred  Noble,  Geo.  S.  Morrison,  and  William  H.  Burr,  engineers,  and  Professor 
Emory  R.  Johnson  and  Samuel  Pasco  as  experts,  respectively,  on  the  com- 
mercial and  political  aspects  of  the  problem.  Explorations  were  made  of  the 
entire  Isthmus,  but  no  favorable  route  was  found  other  than  that  at  Nicaragua 
and  that  at  Panama.  The  Commission  reported  on  November  16,  1901,  in 
favor  of  the  construction  of  a  canal  across  Nicaragua,  provided  the  property  of 
the  New  French  Canal  Company  on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  could  not  be 
purchased  for  $40,000,000,  nearly  one-third  of  the  price  asked. 

The  total  length  of  the  canal  proposed  at  Nicaragua  was  about  187  miles,  47 
miles  of  which  was  in  deep  water  in  Lake  Nicaragua,  17  miles  in  the  river  not 
requiring  improvement,  leaving  121  miles  of  river  to  be  canalized.  It  was  to 
have  nine  locks.  The  difficulties  which  would  have  to  be  overcome  are  about 
the  same  as  at  Panama.  However,  the  longer  distance  at  Nicaragua  and  the 
proximity  to  active  volcanoes  made  it  less  desirable  than  the  Panama  route. 
The  latter  was  more  advantageous  because  of  the  Panama  railroad  and  the 
extensive  plant  and  work  of  the  French. 

PANAMA 

The  Panama  Canal  project,  like  the  others,  was  the  subject  of  many 
studies  and  surveys,  the  first,  as  stated  above,  being  made  in  1534.  None  of 
the  surveys  however  were  thorough  prior  to  the  one  made  by  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission  in  1890.  Simon  Bolivar,  in  1827,  caused  a  survey  to  be  made  of 
the  route  by  an  English  surveyor,  and  in  1835  the  United  States  sent  Charles 
Biddle  to  investigate  possible  water  or  railroad  routes  across  the  Isthmus. 
He  obtained  a  concession  from  New  Granada  (Colombia)  for  a  railroad,  but 
nothing  further  was  done  at  that  time.  A  few  years  later,  1838,  a  company  of 
Frenchmen  obtained  a  similar  concession,  and  a  report  that  a  summit  pass  of 
37  feet  above  sea  level  caused  the  French  Government  to  send  out  Napoleon 
Garella  to  make  a  survey  which  corrected  this  error.  He  recommended  a  lock 
canal  with  a  summit  level  of  about  160  feet  above  sea  level,  a  tunnel  of  3^  miles 
through  the  divide,  and  18  locks  to  make  the  required  lift.  It  was  not  until 
May,  1876,  that  the  Government  of  Colombia  gave  to  the  French  Canal  Com- 
pany the  concession  under  which  the  first  canal  work  was  done,  although  the 
Panama  railroad  was  built  in  1850-5,  and  other  surveys  had  been  made  under 
the  direction  of  the  United  States  Government  in  1854  and  1866.  While  the 
French  were  at  work  on  the  Canal  many  studies  were  made  of  the  project  by 
officers  of  the  United  States  Navy. 


[31  ] 


%h&  Panama  Railroad 


HOM  1750  to  1849,  trade  across  the  Isthmus  was  at  a  standstill,  and 
the  old  pack  trails  from  Porto  Bello  and  from  Cruces  on  the  Chagres 


became  nearly  obliterated  through  disuse.  Spain's  belated  change  of 
policy,  the  granting  of  free  trade  to  the  colonies,  came  too  late  to  be 
of  much  benefit  to  Panama.  A  few  ships  discharged  their  cargoes  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Chagres  for  transportation  over  the  Cruces  trail,  but  there  were  no  ade- 
quate facilities  for  handling  any  great  amount  of  trade  had  there  been  any. 
What  little  trade  there  was  went  around  Cape  Horn  or  via  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  The  Isthmus  became  a  place  of  so  little  importance  that  it  was  reduced 
from  a  viceregency  in  1718,  when  it  became  a  province  of  New  Granada  (the 
old  name  for  Colombia).  It  obtained  its  independence  from  Spain  on  Sep- 
tember 26,  1821. 

In  1849,  however,  the  Isthmus  again  came  to  life  with  the  steady  flow  of 
emigrants  bound  for  California,  where  gold  had  been  discovered  during  the 
previous  year.  California  and  Oregon  had  also  been  thrown  open  to  settle- 
ment, and  the  Isthmian  transit  became  almost  a  necessity,  for  the  only  other 
means  of  communication  with  those  states  were  the  long  overland  journey  by 
wagon  train  across  the  American  continent,  and  the  long  voyage  around  South 
America.     Thus  the  Isthmus  as  a  trade  route  again  came  to  the  front. 

The  advantages  of  an  Isthmian  railroad  as  a  means  of  developing  the  trade 
of  the  United  States  with  the  growing  republics  of  Central  and  South  America 
was  realized  as  early  as  1835,  when  President  Andrew  Jackson  appointed  Mr. 
Charles  Biddle  as  a  commissioner  to  visit  the  different  routes  best  adapted  for 
interoceanic  communication  by  rail  or  by  water  between  the  two  oceans.  Mr. 
Biddle  visited  the  Isthmus,  went  to  Bogota,  and  obtained  from  the  Government 
of  New  Granada  a  concession  for  constructing  a  railroad  across  the  American 
Isthmus.  He  returned  to  the  United  States  in  1837  with  this  document,  but 
died  before  he  was  able  to  prepare  a  report,  so  nothing  further  was  done  at 
that  time.  In  1847,  a  French  syndicate,  headed  by  Mateo  Kline  obtained  a 
similar  concession,  but  was  unable  to  raise  the  money  necessary  to  carry  out  the 
work.  In  December,  1848,  three  far-sighted  Americans,  William  H.  Aspinwall, 
Henry  Chauncey,  and  John  L.  Stephens,  entered  into  a  contract  with  New 

[  32  ] 


Jv\M-D    piVIDED  — ^crnFLK  WOM>D>  TTKITEP 

Granada  to  build  the  road,  and  the  Panama  Railroad  Company,  with  a  capital- 
ization of  $1,000,000,  was  incorporated  under  a  charter  granted  in  the  state  of 
New  York.  Aspinwall,  in  the  same  year,  obtained  from  Congress  a  contract 
for  carrying  United  States  mail  by  steamer  from  Panama  to  California  and 
Oregon,  as  a  part  of  his  railroad  scheme.  A  similar  mail  contract  authorized 
by  Congress  on  the  Atlantic  side,  New  York  and  New  Orleans  to  Chagres, 
was  obtained  at  the  same  time  by  Mr.  George  Law. 

As  soon  as  the  concession  was  obtained  from  New  Granada,  Mr.  Stephens, 
accompanied  by  Mr.  J.  L.  Baldwin,  an  engineer,  went  over  the  proposed  route 
for  the  road  and,  finding  a  summit  pass  of  a  little  less  than  300  feet,  decided  that 


High  trestle  for  embankment  fill.  The  new  line  was  built  on  a  95-foot  level  and  across  the 
lowlands  of  the  Gatun  Lake  region  a  number  of  long  and  high  trestles  for  embankment  fills,  some 
of  them  90  feet  high,  had  to  be  built. 

[  33  ] 


Jv\N-D    DIVIDED CTTHB  WORk>D>  TTKITED 

it  was  feasible.  In  the  early  part  of  1849,  a  party  of  engineers  in  charge  of 
Colonel  G.  H.  Hughes  of  the  United  States  Topographical  Corps,  was  sent  to 
locate  the  line.  Finding  a  summit  ridge  of  287  feet,  a  line  was  laid  out  not 
exceeding  50  miles  in  length  from  ocean  to  ocean,  with  the  Atlantic  terminus 
on  Navy  Bay,  as  Limon  Bay  was  formerly  called,  and  with  the  Pacific  terminus 
in  Panama  City. 

A  contract  was  then  entered  into  with  two  experienced  contractors,  Colonel 
Geo.  M.  Totten  and  John  C.  Trautwine,  for  the  construction  of  the  line. 
These  men  decided  upon  Gorgona,  on  the  Chagres  river,  31  miles  from  Colon, 
as  the  base  of  operations  toward  Panama,  thinking  that  material  could  be  easily 
landed  there  by  boat.  However,  the  river  was  so  low  in  the  dry  season  and  so 
swift  in  the  rainy  season  that  light  draft  steamers  were  found  out  of  the  question 


Loading  dirt  train  for  trestle  fill. 

for  the  transportation  of  railroad  material.  At  the  same  time  the  increasing 
rush  to  the  California  gold  fields  by  way  of  the  Isthmus,  made  river  transporta- 
tion and  the  cost  of  labor  prohibitive,  and  the  contractors  begged  the  company 
to  release  them  from  their  obligation.  This  the  company  did,  and,  deciding 
to  undertake  the  construction  work  itself,  retained  Messrs.  Totten  and  Traut- 
wine in  its  service. 

FIRST    WORK    ON    THE    PANAMA    RAILROAD 

Clearing  on  Manzanillo  Island  began  in  May,  1850.  This  was  a  low 
swampy  plot  of  land  of  about  600  acres  separated  from  the  mainland  by  a 
narrow  arm  of  the  sea,  and  is  the  site  of  the  present  city  of  Colon.  Although 
clearings  had  been  made,  residence  upon  the  island  was  impossible  and  for  the 

[  34  ] 


lB  Tv\N-D    DIVIDED  — ^crrHB  WPg^fi  TINJTED 

first  few  months  the  men  engaged  in  making  the  surveys,  and  the  laborers 
brought  from  Cartagena,  Colombia,  were  obliged  to  live  on  board  an  old  brig 
anchored  in  the  bay.  When  this  became  overcrowded,  as  additions  were  made 
to  the  force,  it  was  supplemented  by  the  hull  of  a  condemned  steamboat.  The 
village  of  Aspinwall  was  founded  on  February  2,  1852,  but  on  account  of 
Colombia's  refusal  to  recognize  the  name,  it  was  later  rechristened  Colon,  in 
honor  of  Columbus. 

The  first  seven  miles  of  the  road  was  through  an  extensive  swamp,  covered 
with  jungle,  and  the  surveyors  were  compelled  to  work  in  water  and  slime  up 
to  their  waists.  In  a  short  time  the  entire  force  suffered  with  malarial  fever,  and 
great  difficulty  was  experienced  in  obtaining  sufficient  laborers.  Irishmen 
were  brought  from  the  United  States,  negros  from  Jamaica,  and  natives  from 
the  adjacent  tropical  countries,  and  fever  made  inroads  on  all  of  them.  The 
importation  of  Chinese  coolies  was  tried,  and  nearly  1,000  of  that  race  were 


Scene  on  the  Panama  railroad,  near  El  Diablo,  Ancon  Hill  in  the  distance. 
Corozal-Ancon  wagon  road  on  the  left. 

brought  from  China.  Native  hill  rice,  tea,  and  opium  were  supplied  them, 
but  within  a  few  weeks  disease  broke  out  among  them,  and,  many  becoming 
melancholy,  are  said  to  have  committed  suicide,  so  that  inside  of  00  days  scarcely 
200  able-bodied  remained.  The  high  mortality  of  these  Chinese  laborers, 
probably  helped  develop  the  story  that  each  of  the  ties  on  the  original  Panama 
railroad  represented  the  life  of  a  laborer.  The  facts  in  the  case  make  the  story 
ridiculous.  There  were  at  least  150,000  cross-ties  in  the  original  road,  including 
sidings  and  yards,  while  the  largest  number  of  employes  at  any  one  time  was 
not  over  7,000,  and  the  road  was  completed  in  four  years.  According  to  the 
most  authentic  records,  the  total  mortality  during  the  construction  period  was 
about  1,200.  Added  to  the  difficulties  of  maintaining  a  labor  force,  was  the 
necessity  of  bringing  nearly  all  food  and  supplies  from  New  York,  a  distance 
of  nearly  2,000  miles. 

By  the  first  of  October,  1851,  the  track  had  been  laid  as  far  as  Gatun,  and 

f  35  ]  ' 


Tv\N-D  .  piVIDED  ~^-<?ri\E,  WOELkD,  T1KITED 


The  largest  railroad  bridge  on  the  new  line,  spanning  the  Chagres  River  at  Gamboa.     It  is  1,320 
feet  long.     The  Chagres  River  empties  into  the  Canal  at  this  point. 

in  the  following  month,  1,000  passengers  were  carried  to  that  station  from 
Colon.  These  passengers  had  arrived  at  Chagres  for  the  California  transit  in 
two  ships,  but  could  not  be  landed  there  on  account  of  a  heavy  storm,  and  were 
disembarked  at  Colon.  This  happened  most  opportunely  for  the  railroad,  as 
the  original  million  dollars  had  been  expended  and  things  were  beginning  to 
look  dark  to  the  stockholders.  When  the  news  reached  New  York  that 
passengers  had  been  carried  as  far  as  Gatun,  seven  miles  by  rail,  even  though 
they  had  been  carried  on  flat  cars,  the  company's  stock  immediately  rose  in 
price.  The  work  was  pushed  on  with  renewed  vigor,  for,  from  this  time  on, 
there  was  a  small  and  steady  income  which  could  be  applied  to  the  construction 
expense.  In  July,  1852,  the  road  had  reached  Barbacoas,  a  total  distance  of 
23  miles,  where  it  was  necessary  to  construct  a  bridge  300  feet  long  to  span  the 
Chagres. 

On  October  10,  Mr.  John  L.  Stephens,  who  was  president  of  the  company, 
died  in  New  York,  and  his  successor,  Mr.  W.  C.  Young,  decided  to  have  the 
remainder  of  the  work  accomplished  by  contract.  The  contractor,  however, 
failed  to  fulfill  his  obligation  and  after  a  year's  delay,  the  company  again  decided 
to  do  the  work. 

COMPLETION    OF    THE    ENTERPRISE 

On  the  27th  of  January,  1855,  at  midnight  and  in  rain,  the  last  rail  to  the 
summit  ridge  at  Culebra,  37  miles  from  Colon  and  11  miles  from  Panama,  was 
laid,  and  in  the  meantime,  work  had  been  advancing  steadily  from  Panama 
city,  to  which  point  material  had  been  transported  around  Cape  Horn.  On 
the  following  day,  the  first  locomotive  passed  from  ocean  to  ocean,  nearly  four 
years  after  ground  was  first  broken.  The  completed  road  was  47  miles  3.020 
feet  long,  with  a  maximum  grade  of  60  feet  to  the  mile,  in  order  to  surmount  the 
summit  ridge  at  elevation  287  feet.     The  first  president  was  Mr.  David  Hoadley. 

[  3fi  J 


CTKE  Tv\N-P  ,  DIVIDED -^q-^\B  WOELLjD,  TTMITED 

Although  track  had  been  laid  from  ocean  to  ocean,  the  railroad  was  in  poor 
physical  condition,  and  it  was  not  until  1859  that  its  construction  account  was 
finally  closed,  at  a  total  expenditure  up  to  that  time  of  $8,000,000.  The  road 
was  properly  ballasted,  heavier  rails  were  laid,  using  hardwood  ties,  bridges  of 
iron  replaced  flimsy  wooden  structures,  and  station  buildings  and  wharves  were 
erected.  To  cross  waterways,  170  bridges  and  culverts  had  been  built  and  the 
wooden  bridge  at  Barbacoas  was  replaced  by  one  of  iron. 

The  road  was  a  paying  investment  from  the  time  when  the  first  1 1  miles  were 
opened  in  1852,  for,  as  new  sections  were  built  they  were  put  into  immediate  ser- 
vice for  passengers  and  freight,  and  at  the  end  of  1855,  the  year  the  entire  road  was 
opened,  its  income  from  passengers  and  freight  was  $2,125,232.31.  When  the 
original  construction  account  was  closed  in  January,  1859,  the  gross  earnings 
amounted  to  $8,146,605.00,  while  operating  expenses,  together  with  deprecia- 
tion amounted  to  $2,174,876.51,  leaving  a  balance  of  $5,971,728.66,  as  legitimate 
earnings  for  a  period  of  seven  years,  during  the  last  four  of  which  the  road  was 
open  throughout  its  entire  length.  Dividends  have  been  paid  every  year  on  the 
stock,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  years  previous  to  the  taking  over  of  the  road 
from  the  French  Canal  Company  by  the  United  States.  The  average  dividend 
during  the  years  1852-1881  was  16  per  cent.,  and  since  that  period,  five  per  cent; 
the  smallest  dividend  was  two  per  cent,  in  1885,  and  the  largest  44  per  cent,  in 
1868.  In  1865,  the  capital  stock  was  increased  from  $5,000,000  to  $7,000,000. 
In  1881,  the  year  when  the  road  was  sold  to  the  French  Canal  Company,  a 


The  station  of  the  Panama  Railroad  at  Panama  City  always  presents  an  active  scene  at  train 
time.  A  new  first  class  station  has  taken  the  place  of  the  old  one  shown  here.  All  passenger 
locomotives  are  oil-burning  and  the  coaches  are  thoroughly  up-to-date,  having  first  and  second 
class  accommodations.     The  tunnel  at  Miraflores  is  736  feet  long. 

[  37  ] 


Jv\n-p  divided —ctke:  wobijd>  united 

dividend  of  52A  per  cent,  was  declared,  but  this  not  only  represented  the  earnings 
for  that  year,  hut  also  included  the  assets  and  surplus  on  hand  at  that  time. 

EARLY    RATES    NEARLY    PROHIBITIVE 

The  following  table  of  rates,  placed  in  effect  when  the  road  was  first  opened 
in  1855,  remained  in  force  for  20  years,  and  following  the  company's  policy, 
were  intended  to  be  prohibitive  at  first,  on  the  theory  that  they  would  be  lowered 
when  the  company  had  had  an  opportunity  to  improve  its  line,  will  explain  in  a 
measure  the  large  profits  made  on  this  road  which  cost  about  $170,000  a  mile 
to  build : 


Fare,  Panama  to  Colon,  lst-class 
Fare,  Panama  to  Colon,  2d-class 

Charge  for  baggage 

Freight  rate,  lst-class 

Freight  rate,  2d-class 

Freight  rate,  3d-class 


1885 


$25.00 
10.00 

.10  perlb. 
3.00  percwt, 
2.00  percwt 
1.00  percwt, 


1003 


$5.00 
2.25 
.02  perlb. 
.40  per  cu.  ft. 
1.20  percwt. 
.80  per  cwt. 


1907 


$2.40 
1.45 
.02  per  lb. 
.50  percwt. 
.44  percwt. 
.32  percwt. 


At  the  present  time  the  first-class  passenger  fare  is  $2.40,  with  150  pounds  of 
baggage  free;  second-class,  half  of  that  rate. 

ESTABLISHMENT  *OF    STEAMSHIP    SERVICE 

In  1856,  the  company  established  a  steamship  service  between  Panama 
and  San  Jose  de  Guatemala,  thus  opening  up  the  rich  coffee  country  of  Central 


The  Panama  Railroad  operates  a  steamship  service  with  a  fleet  of  six  vessels  plying  between 
New  York  and  Colon,  two  of  which  were  purchased  in  1908  for  the  carrying  of  cement.  This 
is  the  Panama,  one  of  the  passenger  steamers. 

[  38] 


CTHJB  TvAN-D  .  DIVIDED  ~—Gm&  WOBUkD,  TTKITED 

America.  This  line  continued  until  October,  1872,  when  it  was  taken  over  by 
the  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Company.  At  one  time  the  road  had  a  line  of  its 
own  between  San  Francisco  and  Panama,  but  this  was  withdrawn  in  1902.  In 
1893,  the  present  Panama  Railroad  Steamship  Line  was  established  between 
New  York  and  Colon,  and  there  are  now  six  ships  in  this  service,  the  Ancon, 
Cristobal,  Panama,  Colon,  Allianca  and  Advance,  although  the  two  former 
vessels  purchased  in  1908  are  owned  by  the  Canal  Commission,  and  have  been 
used  mainly  in  transporting  cement  to  the  Isthmus. 

CONCESSIONARY    RIGHTS    AND    PRIVILEGES 

The  terms  of  the  original  concession  granted  by  the  Government  of  New 
Granada  provided,  among  other  things,  the  exclusive  privilege  of  building  a 
railroad  on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama;  that  no  undertaking  for  the  opening  of  a 
canal  to  connect  the  two  oceans  would  be  permitted  without  the  consent  of  the 
railroad  company;  that  the  railroad  company  should  have  the  exclusive  privilege 
of  building  wagon  roads  across  the  Isthmus  and  the  use  of  the  Chagres  for 
steamer  travel,  and  the  exclusive  privilege  of  the  use  of  the  ports  at  the  two 
termini  for  the  anchorage  of  vessels,  and  for  the  loading  and  unloading  of  cargo. 

This  concession  was  to  remain  in  force  49  years  from  the  day  of  the  road's 
completion,  subject  to  the  right  of  New  Granada  to  take  possession  at  the 
expiration  of  20  years  upon  the  payment  of  $5,000,000,  or  at  the  expiration  of 
40  years  upon  the  payment  of  $2,000,000.  The  provisions  of  the  contract  were 
modified  several  times,  but  its  exclusive  features  remained  practically  the  same. 
In  1807,  it  was  renewed  for  99  years  on  payment  of  $1,000,000  in  cash,  and  an 
annual  payment  of  $250,000  guaranteed  to  New  Granada.  The  railroad  also 
obligated  itself  to  extend  the  road  to  the  islands  in  the  bay  of  Panama.  This 
extension  of  the  contract  for  99  years  was  secured  12  years  after  the  opening  of 
the  road  by  Colonel  Totten,  when  it  was  realized  that  New  Granada  would 
surely  raise  the  necessary  $5,000,000  to  obtain  the  road  after  20  years  of  opera- 
tion, a  road  costing  $8,000,000  to  build  and,  at  that  time  paying  24  per  cent  on  a 
capitalization   of   $7,000,000. 

Two  years  later,  1869,  the  Union  Pacific  was  completed  across  the 
American  continent,  with  a  consequent  decline  of  California  trade  across  the 
Isthmus.  The  loss  of  this  trade  would  have  been  offset  by  the  trade  of  Central 
and  South  America,  had  the  company  seized  the  opportunity,  but  its  policy, 
apparently,  was  to  make  all  it  could  there  and  then  let  the  future  take  care 
of  itself.  In  1868,  the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company  withdrew  its  line  of 
steamers  from  the  Isthmian  transit,  and  sent  its  ships  to  England  via  the  Strait 
of  Magellan,  and  transferred  its  repair  shops  and  coaling  station  from  the  island 
of  Taboga  to  Callao,  Peru.  It  was  forced  to  do  this  by  the  shortsighted  policy 
of  the  railroad's  directors  who  refused  to  ratify  a  traffic  agreement  profitable 
to  both,  which  had  been  tentatively  drawn  up,  giving  the  company  where 
freight  originated  the  right  to  make  a  through  charge  to  be  divided  equally 
between  the  three  carriers,  the  railroad  and  the  steamship  lines  on  either  side 
of  the  Isthmus.  The  steamship  company  took  most  of  its  trade  with  it  and  an  • 
idea  of  what  was  lost  to  the  railroad  can  be  obtained  from  the  fact  that,  in  1874, 
it  had  54  steamers,  with  a  total  of  124,000  tons,  in  operation  between  Valparaiso 
and  Liverpool.  Only  its  smaller  boats  were  sent  to  Panama,  and  these  merely 
to  act  as  feeders  to  the  main  line  on  their  return  south.  This  policy  of  offering 
no  encouragement  to  steamship  lines  also  forced  the  Panama,  New  Zealand 

[39] 


The  headquarters  of  the  Panama  Railroad  are  located  at  Colon.     The  new  line  runs  on  the  east  side 
of  the  canal  and  is  47.11  miles  long.      It  was  completed  on  May  25,  1912,  at  a  cost  of  $8,984,922.18. 


[40] 


CTHE,  TvAN-D  .  DIVIDED  —cn\&  WORkg>_TINJTED 

and  Australian  Steamship  Company  to  give  up  its  attempt  to  inaugurate  a 
monthly  service  via  Wellington  to  Sydney,  connecting  with  the  Royal  Mail 
Steam  Packet  Company,  operating  between  Southampton  and  Colon. 

In  spite  of  this  policy  of  taking  more  than  the  trade  could  stand,  the  railroad 
continued  to  pay  dividends,  but  it  would  undoubtedly  have  done  a  much  more 
profitable  business  had  it  endeavored  to  help,  instead  of  oppressing  the  growing 
trade  of  Central  and  South  America. 

CHANGES    IN    OWNERSHIP 

When  the  French  operations  were  begun  in  1881,  the  French  Canal 
Company  found  that  in  order  to  build  a  canal  it  would  first  have  to  gain  the 
consent  of  the  railroad  or  to  purchase  it.  The  latter  plan  was  followed,  and  in 
June  of  that  year,  68,888  of  the  70,000  shares  were  obtained  for  a  little  over 
$20,000,000  or  two  and  one-half  times  what  the  road  had  originally  cost  to 
build.  In  addition  to  the  amount  expended  for  shares,  bonuses  paid  brought 
the  total  cost  to  a  little  over  $25,000,000.  When  the  United  States,  on  May  4, 
1904,  took  over  the  affairs  of  the  New  French  Canal  Company,  they  came  into 
possession  of  these  shares,  and  obtained  the  remainder,  1,112  shares,  by  private 
purchase  at  a  cost  of  $157,118.24,  or  an  average  price  of  $140.00  per  share. 
The  entire  stock  of  the  Panama  Railroad  and  Steamship  Company  is  now 
owned  by  the  United  States,  with  the  exception  of  one  share  transferred  to  each 
of  the  directors  to  enable  them  to  qualify  under  the  articles  of  incorporation. 
The  Chairman  and  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  is  also 
President  of  the  Panama  Railroad  Company. 

Since  it  has  become  a  government-owned  corporation,  the  road  has  become 
secondary  to  the  Canal  work,  although  it  is  still  a  common  carrier,  and  carries 


The  railroad  station  at  Gatun,  which  is  the  only  station  of  a  permanent  type  so  far 
constructed,  except  at  Colon  and  Panama  City. 

f  41   1 


CTKB   Tv\NP    DIVIDED ^THE  WpRI^TNITgD 


Old  Washington  Hotel,  showing  statue  of  the  Panama  Railroad  founders,  Henry  Chauncey,  Wm. 
H.  Aspinwall  and  John  L.  Stephens.     A  new  modern  hotel  has  taken  the  place  of  the  old  one. 

about  70,000  tons  of  commercial  freight  a  month,  which  is  about  one-half  of  the 
total  amount,  the  balance  being  handled  for  the  company  and  for  the  Canal 
work. 

When  the  road  was  turned  over  by  the  French  it  was  found  to  be  in  a 
neglected  condition,  with  obsolete  equipment  and  rolling  stock.  Since  that 
time  terminal  wharves,  equipped  with  modern  cargo  cranes,  have  been  con- 
structed, terminal  yards,  warehouses  and  machine  shops  provided,  new  and 
powerful  locomotives,  12  of  which  are  oil  burners,  larger  cars  for  passengers 
and  freight  put  into  service,  heavier  rails  laid,  bridges  strengthened  to  enable 
them  to  carry  the  heavier  equipment,  and  the  whole  line  double-tracked. 
Permanent  reinforced  concrete  stations  have  been  built  at  Colon,  Gatun  and 
Panama,  and  a  modern  concrete  hotel,  the  Washington,  costing  upwards  of 
$650,000  has  been  constructed  on  Colon  beach. 

THE    NEW    MAIN    LINE 

The  relocated,  or  new  main  line  of  the  railroad  runs  on  the  east  side  of  the 
canal  for  its  entire  length  of  47.11  miles.  From  Colon  to  Mindi,  4.17  miles, 
and  from  Corozal  to  Panama,  the  old  location  was  used,  but  the  remaining 
40  miles  are  new  road.  From  Gatun,  the  line  skirts  the  north  shore  of  the  lake 
for  about  four  miles,  and  then  turns  south,  crossing  the  eastern  arm  of  the  lake 
on  a  high  trestle  fill  at  an  elevation  of  95  feet  above  sea  level.  Near  Caimito, 
the  road  approaches  the  canal  again,  and  parallels  it  to  Gamboa.  Originally, 
it  was  planned  to  carry  the  road  through  Culebra  Cut  on  a  40-foot  berm,  10  feet 
above  the  water  level,  but  slides  caused  the  abandonment  of  the  project,  and  it 
was  built  on  a  high  level  around  Gold  Hill  instead.     Its  highest  point  is  271 

[  42] 


CTHE  TiAN-P  .divided q^BE:  WOBIjgULr 


feet  above  sea  level  near  LaPita,  and  where  the  continental  divide  is  crossed, 
opposite  Culebra,  the  height  is  241  feet.  From  the  south  end  of  Culebra  Cut 
at  Paraiso,  the  railroad  runs  practically  parallel  with  the  canal  to  Panama. 
Where  the  road  crosses  the  Gatun  River,  near  Monte  Lirio,  a  steel  girder  bridge 
with  a  lift  span  has  been  erected  to  permit  native  sailing  craft  to  pass  into  the 
east  arm  of  the  lake,  and  at  Gamboa,  the  Chagres  River  is  crossed  with  a  steel 
girder  bridge  one-quarter  of  a  mile  long.  At  Miraflores,  the  road  passes  through 
a  tunnel  736  feet  long. 

The  new  line  was  completed  on  May  2,5,  1912,  at  a  cost  of  $8,984,922.18, 
but  passenger  trains  were  not  run  over  it  for  its  entire  length  until  September  2, 
1913,  when  the  former  crossing  at  Gamboa  dike  was  abandoned  on  account  of 
the  rise  of  Gatun  Lake.  On  that  date  a  new  schedule  was  placed  in  effect, 
whereby  the  main  line  trains  run  all  the  way  from  Colon  to  Panama  on  the  east 
side  of  the  canal,  and  the  towns  on  the  west  bank  are  served  with  a  shuttle  train 
service  from  Panama  to  Bas  Obispo,  the  present  terminus  of  the  old  double- 
track  line.  The  shuttle  trains  now  cross  the  canal,  near  Paraiso  on  a  trestle 
bridge,  but  as  this  will  have  to  be  removed  to  permit  the  navigation  of  the  canal, 
a  wooden  pontoon  bridge  will  be  built  in  the  same  locality  of  sufficient  width  for 
a  single  track  and  a  roadway  for  vehicles.  This  is  not  intended  for  a  permanent 
crossing  but  only  to  such  time  as  the  villages  on  the  west  bank  of  the  canal  can 
be  abandoned.  South  of  Corozal,  a  change  will  be  made  in  the  road  which  will 
have  the  effect  of  placing  the  new  town  of  Balboa  on  the  main  line,  with  its 
terminus  at  Panama  as  at  present.  The  railroad  possesses  modern  passenger 
terminals  at  both  ends.  The  one  in  Colon  is  of  concrete  block  construction, 
and  was  opened  on  July  23,  1909.  It  is  not  particularly  attractive  from  an 
architectural  standpoint.  The  new  station  in  Panama,  costing  about  $100,000, 
was  completed  in  the  latter  part  of  1913.  The  only  other  station  of  a  permanent 
type  so  far  constructed  is  at  Gatun,  built  in  1909. 


IfrrIE  II  ii'i»«  ■    I«»'i 

is |! I!!  I  lilt 


The  new  Hotel  Washington  at  Colon.     Cost  about  $500,000. 
Operated  by  the   Panama   Railroad. 

[  43  ] 


CTHE  TW\NP  .  DIVIDED ^THE  WOB^D,  TTMITED 

The  total  mileage  of  the  road,  exclusive  of  sidings,  is  58.79,  as  follows: 
Main  line,  47.11  miles;  Pedro  Miguel  to  Bas  Obispo,  9.12  miles,  and  Panama 
to  Balboa  2.56  miles. 

BUSIEST    SHORT    LINE    IN    THE    WORLD 

During  the  years  1911-1912  the  road  carried  777,121  first-class  passengers, 
and  1,980,550  second-class  passengers,  an  increase  of  over  300,000  for  the  year. 
During  the  fiscal  year  just  closed,  the  passenger  traffic  is  expected  to  show 
material  increase  due  in  part  to  the  increased  tourist  travel.  Freight  amounting 
to  1,871,076  tons  was  transported  over  the  railroad  during  1911-1912,  divided 
as  follows: 

Per  cent. 

Through  commercial  freight   36.80 

Local  and  I.  C.  C.  freight 49.93 

Local  commercial  freight 10.37 

Panama  Railroad  Company's  freight 2.90 

The  net  revenue  from  its  operation  was  $1,997,280.80.  The  steamship 
line,  on  the  other  hand,  has  not  paid  as  an  investment,  except  as  a  feeder  for  the 
railroad,  and  for  the  benefit  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission.  It  has  had  a 
steady  freight  and  passenger  traffic,  but  the  cargoes  have  consisted  principally 
of  canal  supplies,  and  the  passengers  have  been  mostly  employes  of  the  Canal 
Commission  and  railroad,  who  are  carried  at  a  reduced  rate.  The  net  deficit 
from  the  operation  of  the  steamship  line  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1912, 
was  $305,742.85. 

With  the  completion  of  the  canal  it  is  possible  that  the  road  will  be  electri- 
fied, obtaining  the  necessary  power  from  the  hydroelectric  plant  at  Gatun  spill- 
way, and  will  be  devoted  almost  entirely  to  local  traffic.  This  traffic  will,  no 
doubt,  be  considerable,  for  Colon  and  Panama  will  always  be  important  cities. 


New  Panama  railroad  passenger  terminal  in  Panama,  just  completed. 

[  44  ] 


HE  French  attempt  to  construct  a  waterway  across  the  Isthmus  was 
foredoomed  to  failure  because  the  project  fell  into  the  hands  of 
promoters  and  speculators.  A  contributory  cause  was  the  very  high 
sick  and  death  rate  among-  the  French  employes  on  the  Isthmus.  This 
added  greatly  to  the  cost  of  administration  and  resulted  in  an  unstable  labor 
force.  Many  of  the  best  engineers  left  the  Isthmus  after  short  service,  or  died, 
and  these  constant  changes  made  it  difficult  to  pursue  any  regular  plan  to  keep 
up  an  effective  organization  to  carry  on  the  work.  The  company  had  to  pay 
high  wages  and  offer  special  inducements  to  persuade  men  to  take  the  chance  of 
one  in  five  of  surviving  an  attack  of  yellow  fever  which  they  were  liable  to 
contract.  Had  the  work  been  in  charge  of  a  rich  and  powerful  government, 
public  opinion  would  not  have  allowed  the  work  to  have  been  carried  on  at  such 
an  appalling  cost  of  life.  When  the  enterprise  was  started  the  method  of 
transmission  of  malaria  and  yellow  fever  was  unknown,  and,  even  if  the  French 
had  taken  the  sanitary  precautions  prevailing  at  that  time,  they  could  not  have 
stamped  out  these  two  fevers  which  gave  the  Isthmus  the  reputation  of  being 
the  most  unhealthy  place  in  the  world  for  a  white  man.  As  a  private  corpora- 
tion, it  could  not  enforce  sanitary  regulations  had  it  desired  to  do  so,  for,  unlike 
the  United  States,  it  did  not  acquire  absolute  jurisdiction  over  the  Canal  strip, 
but  was  at  the  mercy  of  the  Colombian  courts. 

Other  causes  were  extravagance,  which  naturally  developed  into  graft, 
for  the  supply  of  money  which  came  flowing  into  the  coffers  of  the  company 
from  eager  investors  beguiled  by  the  name  of  De  Lesseps  seemed  inexhaustible; 
the  lack  of  suitable  machinery,  the  want  of  preparation,  and  misguided  leader- 
ship. All  these  mistakes  have  served  as  warning  signals  to  the  Canal  Com- 
mission, so  that  the  failure  of  the  French  has  contributed,  in  a' large  measure,  to 
the  success  of  the  Americans. 


I)K    LESSEPS PRO.MOTKR 


The  first  French  Canal  Company,  La  Societe  International  du  Canal 
Interoceanique,  inaugurated  the  undertaking  with  an  exclusive  concession  from 
Colombia,  but  with  an  incomplete  survey  of  the  proposed  work,  and  an  esti- 
mate of  cost  and   time  placed   much   too  low.     The  necessarv  monev  was 


[  45  ] 


CTHB  TvAN-P  .  DIVIDED cmB  WQB^gLTTNJTED 


Count  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps.  His  name  will 
always  be  linked  with  the  great  enterprise 
as  it  was  under  his  direction  and  control 
that  the  work  first  took  definite  form. 


obtained  from  the  French  middle 
classes,  who  were  induced  to  part  with 
their  savings  through  the  magic  name  of 
Ferdinand  de  Lesseps,  who  had  just 
brought  to  a  successful  close  his  great 
work  at  Suez,  and  who  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  new  enterprise.  De  Lesseps 
was  honest  and  sincere,  but  he  was  an 
old  man,  somewhat  blinded  by  his  pre- 
vious good  fortune,  and,  therefore, 
easily  deluded.  He  was  enthusiastic 
over  the  idea  of  a  canal  connecting  the 
Atlantic  with  the  Pacific,  and  made 
himself  and  others  believe  that  the  work 
could  be  accomplished  more  quickly 
and  much  easier  than  the  Suez.  His 
ability  as  a  missionary  made  him  valu- 
able to  the  promoters,  for  the  difficulties 
of  the  work  across  the  Isthmus,  as  com- 
pared with  the  work  at  Suez  should 
have  been  apparent  even  to  the  layman. 
He  was  not  an  expert  engineer;  it  did 
not  require  any  engineering  ability,  but 
merely  imagination,  to  see  the  practica- 
bility of  cutting  a  sea  level  channel 
through  the  low  desert  region  of  upper 
Egypt,  while  at  Panama,  a  hilly  and 


Former  headquarters  of  De  Lesseps,  Cristobal,  now  used  by  the  Canal  Commission. 

[46] 


CTHE  Tv\NP  .  DIVIDED CTTiE,  WQ^P^JTINJTED 


rock  country  had  to  be  traversed,  torrential  streams  diverted,  and  a  tidal  basin 
constructed,  problems  which  the  world's  foremost  engineers  have  differed  in 
the  solution.  And  yet  De  Lesseps  sincerely  believed  that  he  was  to  achieve  a 
second  triumph,  and  much  easier  than  his  first.  (The  Suez  Canal  was  opened 
in  1869,  took  ten  years  to  build,  and  cost  about  $100,000,000,  or  a  million 
dollars  a  mile.  This  low  cost  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  cut  was  made  through 
a  stretch  of  level  sand,  and  Said  Pasha,  the  Khedive  of  Egypt,  a  large  stock- 
holder in  the  enterprise,  practically  forced  his  subjects  to  work  on  the  project 
in  much  the  same  manner  as  Rameses  of  old) . 

PROCURING    THE    CONCESSION 

The  concession  for  the  privilege  of  constructing  the  Canal  was  obtained 
from  Colombia  in  May,  1876,  by  General  Stephen  Ttirr,  a  Hungarian,  who  had 
become  acquainted  with  De  Lesseps  when  the  latter  was  planning  his  work  at 
Suez,  and  who  was  later  incited  by  the  Frenchman's  success  in  an  effort  to 
duplicate  the  feat  at  Panama.  He  organized  a  provisional  company  in  France 
and  sent  an  engineering  party  to  the  Isthmus  in  November,  1876,  to  make 
explorations  and  surveys.  The  party  was  in  charge  of  Lieutenant  Napoleon 
Bonapart  Wyse,  of  the  French  Navy,  a  brother-in-law  of  General  Ttirr,  and  at 
that  time  only  23  years  of  age.  The  first  expedition  was  only  partly  successful, 
several  of  its  members  falling  victims  to  disease.  Wyse  was  again  sent  out  in 
the  spring  of  1878  with  Lieutenant  Armand  Reclus,  also  of  the  French  Navy. 
On  this  trip  he  obtained  a  new  concession,  approved  May  18,  1878,  in  the  name 
of  the  association  presided  over  by  General  Ttirr,  which  modified  and  extended 
the  former  one,  so  as  to  give  the  promoters  the  exclusive  privilege  of  building  a 
canal  across  the  Isthmus  anywhere  within  the  United  States  of  Colombia. 
This  concession  was  to  remain  in  force  99  years,  provided  the  necessary  per- 
mission was  obtained  from  the   Panama  Railroad   Company  which  held  a 


The  old  port  of  Colon  in  1884,  during  the  early  French  days.     This  photograph 
was  taken  with  a  wet  plate,  a  relic  of  photography. 

[  47] 


CpFIB  Tv\N-P  .  DIVIDED  ^crrne  WPgjyD,  TIKITED 


Cristobal  street  scene  in  the  French  days.  The  scenes  of  the  old  French  days  have  changed 
with  newer  ideas.  This  section  is  now  filled  with  roomy  houses  and  quarters  for  the  canal 
employes  and  I.  C.  C.  manufacturing  plants. 

monopoly  of  the  Isthmian  route.  Work  was  to  be  begun  not  later  than  1883, 
and  was  to  be  completed  within  12  years,  with  an  extension  of  six  years  in  case 
the  original  term  proved  too  short. 

Although  Wyse  went  over  not  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  distance  from 
Panama  to  Colon,  he  submitted  what  were  supposed  to  be  complete  plans  and 
a  statement  of  cost  for  a  sea  level  canal  between  the  two  points,  following  the 
line  of  the  Panama  railroad.  These  plans  and  estimates  were  submitted  to  an 
international  engineering  congress  which  was  convened  in  Paris,  May  14-29, 
1879,  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  concession,  with  Ferdinand  de 
Lesseps  at  its  head.  These  plans  were  the  basis  of  a  decision  by  the  congress  in 
favor  of  a  sea  level  canal,  following  the  route  of  the  Panama  railroad,  by  way 
of  the  pass  at  Culebra,  using  the  valley  of  the  Chagres  river  on  the  Atlantic 
side,  and  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  on  the  Pacific  side  of  the  continental 
divide.  It  is  pertinent  to  note  that  in  this  congress,  consisting  of  136  delegates 
from  France,  Germany,  the  United  States  and  other  countries,  only  42  were 
engineers,  while  the  remainder  were  promoters,  politicians,  speculators,  and 
personal  friends  of  De  Lesseps.  The  Wyse  concession  and  plans  were  "shoved 
through,"  approved,  and  turned  over  to  La  Societe  International  du  Canal 
Interoceanique,  commonly  known  as  the  first  French  Canal  Company,  for  a 
consideration  of  $2,000,000.  This  was  the  first  "step  in  the  dark,"  taken  by  the 
company. 

DE    LESSEPS'    PLAN. 

De  Lesseps  made  two  visits  to  the  Isthmus,  the  first  in  December,  1879,  and 
the  second  in  1886,  remaining  for  about  two  months  on  each  occasion.  On 
his  first  visit  he  was  accompanied  by  his  wife,  three  of  his  children,  and  an 
international  technical  commission,  consisting  of  nine  members.     At  one  of  the 

[48  j 


<T?1B  TvANP  .DIVIDED -Gr7\&  WOI3JLjD>  TTKITED 

numerous  receptions  and  banquets  tendered  him,  he  said:  "There  are  only 
two  great  difficulties  to  be  overcome,  the  Chagres  River,  and  the  deep  cutting 
at  the  summit.  The  first  can  be  surmounted  by  turning  the  headwaters  of  the 
river  into  another  channel,  and  the  second  will  disappear  before  the  wells  which 
will  be  sunk  and  charged  with  explosives  of  sufficient  force  to  remove  vast 
quantities  at  each  discharge." 

The  engineering  commission,  after  a  superficial  study  of  the  route  and 
former  incomplete  surveys,  in  a  report  submitted  February  14,  1880,  estimated 
the  cost  at  $168,600,000.  The  engineering  congress  estimated  the  cost  at 
$214,000,000.  On  February  20,  De  Lesseps  reduced  this  estimate  to  $131,600,- 
000,  and  again  on  March  1,  without  apparent  reason,  to  $120,000,000.  The 
proposed  sea  level  canal  was  to  have  a  uniform  depth  of  29.5  feet,  a  bottom 
width  of  72  feet,  and  a  width  on  the  water  line  of  about  90  feet,  and  involved 
excavation  estimated  at  157,000,000  cubic  yards.  The  engineering  congress 
estimated  seven  or  eight  years  as  the  time  required  to  complete  the  work. 
De  Lesseps,  with  his  usual  optimism,  reduced  the  time  to  six  years.  To 
control  the  floods  of  the  Chagres  River,  various  schemes  were  proposed,  the 
principal  one  being  the  construction  of  a  dam  at  Gamboa,  a  little  below  Cruces, 
and  the  construction  of  channels  to  the  sea  to  carry  the  impounded  water  away 
from  the  canal.  On  account  of  the  great  difference  in  the  tides  of  the  two 
oceans,  a  maximum  of  two  and  one-half  feet  in  the  Atlantic  and  21  feet  in  the 
Pacific,  a  tidal  basin  or  lock  was  to  have  been  built  at  the  Pacific  entrance. 
(The  high  tide  on  the  Pacific  side  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Bay  of  Panama  is 
funnel-shaped).     No  work  was   ever  accomplished   on   either  of   these   two 


Front  Street,  Colon,  during  the  flourishing  French  days,  with  the  pay  car 

at  the  old  depot. 

[49] 


■■" 


A  group  of  views  of  Balboa  and  the  canal  entrance  and  operations,  during  the  days  of  both 
the  First  and  Second  French  Companies.  The  wharf  was  the  first  constructed  by  the  French. 
The  one-sided  dump  cars  shown  in  the  top  picture  are  now  obsolete. 


[  50] 


CTHE,  TvMSL-P    DIVIDED- <?H\&  WOI5UyD>  TTMITED 

projects.     A  dam  at  Gamboa  was  found  later  to  be  impracticable,  and  the 
problem  of  the  diversion  of  the  Chagres  River  was  left  to  some  future  time. 

INAUGURATING    THE    WORK 

On  January  1,  1880,  the  ceremony  of  breaking  the  ground  was  to  have 
been  performed  by  De  Lesseps  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande,  about  three 
miles  west  of  Panama  city.  The  boat  bearing  a  party  of  ladies  and  gentlemen 
who  were  to  take  part  was  delayed  in  starting,  with  the  result  that  it  could  not 
get  within  two  or  three  miles  of  the  shore  on  account  of  the  ebbing  tide.  This, 
however,  did  not  dampen  the  ardor  of  the  versatile  Frenchman,  as  the  arrival 
of  the  steamer  in  the  entrance  of  the  river  mouth  was  considered  by  him  a 
sufficient  beginning.  The  first  blow  was  thereupon  struck  with  a  pick  in  a  box 
of  earth  upon  the  deck  of  the  steamer,  while  the  observers  aided  their  imagina- 


Limon  Bay  in  the  busy  French  days. 

tion  by  copious  draughts  of  champagne.  On  January  10,  1880,  De  Lesseps, 
with  another  party  of  civil  and  church  dignitaries,  went  to  Culebra  to  witness 
the  first  blast.  Accounts  differ  as  to  this  event.  Tracy  Robinson,  the  oldest 
American  on  the  Isthmus,  states  in  his  book  on  Panama,  that  the  blast  never 
came  off,  and  as  he  was  present,  he  ought  to  know.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
"Star  and  Herald"  of  the  day  following  gives  a  circumstantial  account  of  the 
affair,  ending  with:  "The  mine  had  been  carefully  laid  in  an  exceedingly  hard 
and  compact  formation  of  basalt  at  a  few  feet  below  the  summit,  and  charged 
with  30  kilograms  of  explosive.  The  operation  was  performed  with  complete 
success,  and  immense  amount  of  solid  rock  being  hurled  from  its  original 
position."     No  photographs  of  the  incident  are  extant. 

Actual  excavation  work  did  not  commence  in  Culebra  Cut  until  some  time 

[51] 


PIVIDED gTHB  WORkE>>  TTKITED 


The  pick  and  shovel  brigade. 

later.  "The  Bulletin  du  Canal  Interoceanique,"  published  by  the  company 
for  the  benefit  of  the  stockholders,  of  February  1,  1882,  states:  "The  first 
work  in  the  great  cut  of  the  maritime  canal  was  formally  inaugurated  today 
(Jan.  20,  1882),  at  Empire  in  the  presence  of  the  dignitaries  of  the  state,  the 
leading  citizens  of  the  city  and  a  great  assemblage  of  the  people.  The  first 
locomotive  has  arrived  at  the  newly  opened  excavation.  The  city  of  Panama 
is  celebrating  the  event  with  a  great  fete." 

De  Lesseps  left  Colon  for  the  United  States  on  February  22,  1880,  for  the 
purpose  of  interesting  Americans  in  the  undertaking.  Although  he  was 
received  with  a  great  deal  of  enthusiasm  everywhere,  he  was  unable  to  dispose 
of  the  stock  which  he  had  thoughtfully  reserved.  Americans  were  interested 
in  a  canal,  but  not  in  a  canal  under  French  control.  He  then  proceeded  on  a 
similar  tour  of  Europe,  where  he  was  more  successful  from  a  pecuniary  point  of 
view.  The  first  issue  of  stock,  600,000  shares  of  $100  each,  was  subscribed  twice 
over,  mostly  taken  in  France.  These  shares  were  distributed  among  100,000 
persons,  indicating  the  great  Frenchman's  popularity  with  the  people  of  his 
country.  In  1888,  when  the  company  failed,  the  total  subscriptions,  stocks  and 
bond  issues,  had  reached  $393,505,100,  and  the  shareholders  numbered  200,000. 

Two  years  of  feverish  preparation  followed  which  witnessed  the  making 
of  hasty  surveys,  the  bringing  together  of  machinery  and  a  labor  force,  and  the 
erection  of  quarters  and  hospitals.  The  actual  construction  work  was  let  to  a 
firm  of  French  contractors,  Couvreaux  &  Hersent,  but  they  soon  realized  the 
difficulties  of  the  undertaking  and  withdrew  from  the  last  part  of  their  contract. 

FRENCH    LABOR    FORCE 

There  seems  to  have  been  little  difficulty  experienced  in  obtaining  a  labor 
force,  which  in  1888,  numbered  about  20,000  men.     Nine-tenths  of  these  were 

[52] 


TvAN-D  ,  DIVIDED —^q^RE:  WQB.kP^IINJTEP 


negroes  from  the  West  Indies,  and  many  of  them  held  clerical  and  other  similar 
positions.  The  white  employes,  mainly  from  France,  were  treated  with 
extreme  generosity.  Economy  was  an  unknown  factor  in  the  administration 
of  affairs  of  the  first  company.  The  average  pay  of  a  clerk  was  $125  per 
month,  and  of  a  division  chief  from  $200  to  $300  per  month.  After  two  years' 
service,  five  months  vacation,  with  free  traveling  expenses  to  and  from  France, 
were  granted.  The  hours  of  labor  for  the  clerical  force  was  from  8  to  11  a.  m., 
and  2  to  5  p.  m.,  six  hours  a  day.  Free  quarters,  furniture,  bedding,  lamps, 
kitchen  utensils,  etc.,  were  provided.  As  there  was  no  system  of  accounting 
in  vogue,  many  did  quite  a  profitable  business  in  the  buying  and  selling  of  the 
company's  furniture.  This  was  merely  one  of  the  petty  forms  of  graft  in 
vogue,  however.  Enormous  salaries  were  paid  to  the  directors,  engineers,  and 
other  officers  on  the  Isthmus.  The  director-generals  lived  in  a  house  that  cost 
$100,000,  now  used  as  the  American  Legation  in  Panama  City;  they  received 
$50,000  a  year,  and  when  they  went  out  on  the  work  they  were  allowed  $50  a 
day  additional.      One  of  the  private  cars  in  which  they  rode  cost  $42,000. 

LA    FOLIE    DINGLER 

There  formerly  stood  on  an  artificial  terrace  on  the  western  slope  of  Ancon 
Hill  a  building  that  commanded  ready  attention  from  passersby  on  the  road 
from  Panama  to  La  Boca,  now  Balboa.  It  was  the  prospective  home  of  M. 
Jules  Dingier,  probably  the  foremost  director-general  of  the  first  French  com- 
pany, prospective,  because  he  never  occupied  it.  Work  on  the  mansion  was 
begun  shortly  after  he  came  to  the  Isthmus  in  February,  1883,  and  the  cost 
including  the  grounds  is  said  to  have  been  about  $.50,000.     For  many  years 


La  Folie  Dingier,  built  for  M.  Julius  Dingier  in  the  first  French  Company's  days,  but  never  oc- 
cupied by  him.  The  experience  of  M.  Dingier  on  the  Isthmus  constitutes  one  of  the  saddest 
incidents  in  French  canal  history.  His  son,  daughter  and  wife  all  contracted  the  dreaded  yellow 
fever  and  died. 

[  53  ] 


CTHE  Tv\N-D    DIVIDED- cm\&  WOUkP,  TTKITED 


The  village  of  Empire  in  the  old  French  days.     The  French  began  their  first 
excavation  in  the  cut  near  this  point  in   1882. 

it  had  been  called  La  Folie  Dingier,  or  Dingier' s  Folly.  The  experience  of 
M.  Dingier  on  the  Isthmus  constitutes,  perhaps,  one  of  the  saddest  incidents 
in  French  canal  history.  Stories  of  the  fatal  effect  the  climate  of  the  Isthmus 
was  said  to  have  on  foreigners  reached  France,  but  Dingier  scoffed  at  these 
reports.  "I  am  going  to  show  them,"  he  is  credited  with  having  said,  "that 
only  drunkards  and  the  dissipated  contract  yellow  fever  and  die."  In  this 
spirit  he  brought  with  him  to  the  Isthmus,  his  wife,  son,  and  daughter.  His 
son,  who  was  made  director  of  posts,  shortly  fell  victim  to  yellow  fever  and  died. 
Dingier  subsequently  went  to  France  on  leave  of  absence,  and  upon  the  return 
of  himself  and  family  to  the  Isthmus,  his  daughter  met  with  the  fate  of  his  son. 
On  his  return  from  a  second  trip  to  France,  his  wife  also  sickened  and  died  from 
the  same  fell  disease.  Dingier  later  relinquished  his  post  and  went  back  to  France 
a  man  broken  in  mind  and  body.  At  the  time  the  American  Government  took 
possession,  La  Folie  Dingier  had  fallen  into  partial  decay.     Needed  repairs 


The  French  at  work  in  the  Canal  at  Cucaracha,  1885,  just  around 
the  point  from  Gold  Hill. 

1  .r>4  1 


,  piVIDED  —  ^TBElJNC 


Canal  between  Empire  and  Culebra,  showing  the  French 
method  of  excavation,  in  1888. 

were  made  and  for  several  years  the  building  was  utilized  as  a  detention  station 
for  the  quarantine  service.  It  was  sold  in  1910  for  $5L2»,  and  removed  to  make 
way  for  quarry  work  on  the  side  of  Ancon  Hill. 

During  the  period  of  greatest  activity  there  were  probably  2,000  Frenchmen 
on  the  Isthmus,  all  non-immune  to  yellow  fever.  Life  was  a  gamble  and,  with 
no  suitable  social  diversion,  they  naturally  resorted  to  the  only  forms  of  amuse- 
ment available,  the  saloons,  gambling  rooms,  and  houses  of  ill-repute.  Colon 
and  Panama  became 'the  Mecca  of  the  parasites  of  society,  the  non-workers  who 
live  on  vice,  with  the  result  that  an  efficient  labor  force  could  not  be  kept  long- 
under  such  conditions,  and  it  was  continually  changing. 


In  the  center  of  the  Cut  at  the  end  of  the  first  French  Company's  days,  1889. 
The  first  French  Company  operated  from  1881  to  1889. 

[55] 


CTHJB  TvANP    DIVIDED—  <?TTUZ  WOgXJgUTJKjmCT) 


£vv' 


if&A 


Culebra  Cut  in  the  earliest  times  of  the  second  French  Company,   1894. 
THE    SICK    POORLY    CARED    FOR 

Two  hospitals  were  built  in  1883,  which,  with  additions  and  alterations 
have  been  in  constant  use  by  the  Americans.  Ancon  hospital  originally  cost 
$5,600,000,  and  Colon  hospital  cost  $1,400,000,  a  total  of  $7,000,000. 

The  hospitals,  although  fairly  well  equipped,  with  excellent  doctors  and 
surgeons  and  supplied  with  the  best  medicines  and  instruments  of  the  time,  were 
poorly  managed.     They  were  handled  under  contract,  and  the  administration 


Looking  South  from  Culebra  in  the  second  French  Company's  days,  1895. 
The  second  French  Company  operated  from  1894  to  1904. 

[56] 


bANE-J)iviDKD  — cthe:  WQBiaa  ttkited 


The  Cut  as  it  appeared  in  1904  when  the  Americans  began  the  work.  Contractor's  Hill  on 
the  right;  Gold  Hill  on  the  left.  Note  the  succession  of  benches,  lying  one  above  the  other. 
The  Americans  have  followed  this  same  method  in  excavating. 

was  left  almost  entirely  to  French  Sisters  of  Charity,  who,  although  they  were 
devoted  and  religious  women,  were  not  trained  nurses.  These  worthy  women 
left  the  wards  at  night  after  prayer,  closing  the  doors  and  windows  tight  to 
keep  out  the  night  mists,  which  were  supposed  to  bring  malarial  fever,  leaving 
the  patients  without  any  other  care  than  that  which  was  given  by  the  less  feeble 
among  themselves.     When  the  wards  were  opened  for  morning  prayer  it  was 


The  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  in  the  French  days.     The  present  canal  is  between  the  hills. 
The  old  Panama  Railroad  bridge  is  shown  at  the  south  end  of  the  Cut. 

[57] 


CTHB  TvANP  ,  DIVIDED -—ctthe:  WO^  ITNJTED 

often  found  that  some  patient  had  died  during  the  night,  who  might  have  been 
saved  with  proper  attention.  The  legs  of  the  hospital  beds  were  placed  in  tins 
of  water  to  keep  insects  from  crawling  up.  These  pans  of  stagnant  water,  and 
also  the  many  ornamental  basins  containing  flowers  and  plants  in  the  grounds 
outside  made  ideal  breeding  places  for  mosquitoes,  and  it  is  quite  probable 
that  many  patients  fell  victim  to  fever  while  in  the  hospital  suffering  with  some 
minor  illness,  due  to  the  unscreened  windows  and  doors. 


The  Cut  in  French  times,  showing  their  cableway  plan  of  excavation.  These  cableways 
carried  the  material  out  of  the  canal  and  deposited  it  to  one  side,  but  unfortunately  not  far  enough, 
for  much  of  it  has  slid  back  into  the  Cut,  causing  extra  excavation. 

The  hospital  records  show  that  during  the  construction  period  of  the  old 
company — 1881  to  1889 — there  were  5,618  deaths,  1,041  of  which  were  from 
yellow  fever.  The  old  yellow  fever  ward  in  Ancon  hospital,  now  ward  No.  16, 
was  called  St.  Charles,  and  it  is  believed  that  more  people  died  from  yellow  fever 
in  it  than  in  any  other  one  building  in  the  world.  The  West  Indian  negroes 
were  immune  to  yellow  fever,  and  very  few  of  them  were  admitted  to  the 
hospitals.  The  victims,  therefore,  were  nearly  all  white  persons,  and  mostly 
Frenchmen.  A  large  proportion  of  the  sick  did  not  enter  the  hospitals,  as  the 
contractors  were  charged  one  dollar  a  day  for  skilled  medical  treatment  of 
employes.  Colonel  Gorgas  estimates  the  number  of  laborers  who  died  from 
1881  to  1889  at  22,189,  or  a  rate  of  something  over  240  per  thousand  per  year. 
He  also  estimates  that  as  many  died  of  yellow  fever  outside  the  hospitals  as  in, 
and  places  the  total  number  of  deaths  from  that  disease  at  2,082.  In  September 
1884,  during  an  attack  of  yellow  fever,  the  Canal  Company  lost  654  employes  out 
of  a  force  of  about  18,000.  This  is  in  part  based  on  surmise,  for  the  truth  was 
partly  suppressed  or  minimized  by  the  Canal  Company  in  order  not  to  destroy 
the  confidence  of  the  people  in  the  project,  and  outside  of  the  hospital  rolls,  the 
records  were  incomplete.  A  -virulent  form  of  malaria,  known  as  "Chagres 
fever,"  caused  a  greater  toll  in  lives  than  any  other  one  disease.  The  negro 
laborers,  although  immune  from  yellow  fever,  succumbed  quickly  to  attacks 
of  this  form  of  malaria. 

[  58  ] 


Jv\N-D    piVIDED -^crpnE:  WQE^B;  TTXITED 

Under  the  new  canal  company,  the  hospitals  were  turned  over  to  the  Sisters 
of  Charity  who  took  care  of  the  few  patients  admitted  at  a  fixed  charge.  As 
the  revenue  from  patients  was  small,  they  had  a  hard  time  to  keep  them  open 
at  all,  and  were  compelled  to  sell  flowers,  fruits,  vegetables  and  other  products 
from  the  hospital  grounds.  When  the  Americans  took  charge  these  women 
were  replaced  by  trained  nurses. 

THE    CRASH 

The  crash  came  in  December,  1888.  At  this  time  $156,654,687.00  had 
been  expended  on  the  Isthmus,  and  in  Paris,  $78,140,330.00,  a  total  of  $234,- 
795,017.00.  This  vast  sum  is  said  to  have  been  "one-third  expended  on  the 
canal  work,  one-third  wasted,  and  one-third  stolen."  Of  that  spent  at  Panama, 
salaries  and  expenses  of  management  aggregated  $16,540,883;  rents  and  main- 
tenance of  leased  property,  $3,301,070;  material  and  supplies,  $29,722,856; 
buildings,  $15,397,282;  construction  and  engineering  expenses,  $89,434,225; 
land  purchases,  $950,655;  and  medical  and  religious  attendance,  $1,836,768. 
In  view  of  the  various  forms  of  graft,  extravagance  and  waste,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  there  was  so  little  to  show  in  actual  work  accomplished.  At  the 
end  of  eight  years  the  work  was  about  two-fifths  completed. 


A  French  excavator  opening  a  pioneer  trench  in  the  south  end  of  the  Cut. 
best  known  method  of  excavating  in  that  day. 


This  was  the 


The  work  was  let  to  contractors,  very  few  of  whom  faithfully  performed 
the  service  for  which  they  were  paid.  Many  made  small  fortunes.  Those 
who  were  intrusted  with  the  work  of  excavation  were  paid  for  the  amount  of 
spoil  which  they  took  from  the  canal  prism.  As  there  was  no  data  available 
on  the  cost  of  such  work,  it  was  impossible  to  even  estimate  what  the  charge 
should  be.  In  many  cases  the  contractors  took  out  what  was  most  easily 
excavated,  avoiding  the  hard  spots.  One  notable  exception  to  this  was  the 
dredging  work  done  by  the  American  Dredging  and  Contracting  Company, 
which  dredged  the  opening  of  the  Canal  from  Colon  to  beyond  Gatun. 

\  59  ] 


First  French  Company's  days.     Dredges  working  in  the  canal  at  Mindi. 


Two  French  ladder  dredges  working  on  the  Chagres  River,  opposite  Gorgona  20  years  ago. 


The  French  suction  dredges  with  the  carrying  pipes,  were  effective  in  excavating,  but  like 
their  cableways,  did  not  carry  the  spoil  far  enough. 

\  60  1 


CTftV  Tv\NP  .  DIVIDED crRE  WOELkDJf ^TNITED 

Much  worthless  material  was  shipped  to  the  Isthmus,  due  to  ill  advised 
buying,  the  French  manufacturers  undoubtedly  in  many  instances  cleaning 
house  to  their  profit  at  the  expense  of  the  Canal  stockholders.  When  the 
Americans  took  over  the  property  they  found  torch  lights  in  one  storehouse 
apparently  brought  to  the  Isthmus  to  be  used  in  the  celebration  of  the  opening 
of  the  Canal.  At  another  time  a  lot  of  wooden  shovels,  made  from  one  piece, 
were  brought  to  light.  They  have  been  referred  to  as  snow  shovels,  but  were 
evidently  intended  for  handling  sand  or  ashes.  A  ton  or  more  of  rusted  pen 
points  found  in  the  stationery  store  furnished  additional  proof  as  to  where 
some  of  the  money  went. 

Early  in  1885,  it  became  apparent  that  the  Canal  could  not  be  completed 
under  the  sea  level  plan  within  the  time  or  estimated  cost.  During  the  previous 
year  the  promoters  foresaw  the  end,  and  began  to  sell  their  stock.  M.  Leon 
Boyer,  who  succeeded  Dingier  as  director  had  time  to  report  before  his  death 
from  yellow  fever  a  few  months  after  his  arrival  on  the  Isthmus,  that  the  canal 
could  not  be  completed  by  1889,  and  to  submit  a  plan  for  a  lock  canal.      In  May, 


Old  French  dump  cars.  Steel  cars,  18  feet  long,  were  used  exclusively.  The  cars  dumped  on  one 
side  only,  and  were  too  small  for  economical  use.     Most  of  these  were  scrapped  by  the  Americans. 

1885,  M.  De  Lesseps  asked  the  French  Government  for  authority  to  issue 
lottery  bonds  for  a  loan  of  $120, 000, 000,  to  replenish  the  depleted  treasury. 
Before  granting  permission,  the  Government  sent  out  M.  Armand  Rousseau, 
an  eminent  engineer,  to  investigate  conditions.  He  reported  that  the  canal 
could  not  be  finished  within  the  time  and  cost  estimated  unless  changed  to  the 
lock  plan.  Similar  reports  were  made  by  an  engineer  sent  out  by  the  company, 
and  by  the  agent  of  the  Colombian  Government  on  the  Isthmus,  the  latter 
stating  that  the  canal  could  not  be  completed  before  the  expiration  of  the 
concession  in  1892.  In  February,  1885,  Lieutenants  Winslow  and  McLean  of 
the  United  States  Navy,  reported  that  there  remained  to  be  excavated  180,000,- 
000  cubic  yards;  that  the  work  would  take  26  years  at  the  then  rate  of  progress, 
and  that  the  cost  would  total  $350,000,000.  ' 

M.  De  Lesseps  withdrew  his  request  for  permission  to  issue  lottery  bonds, 
but  would  not  consent  to  a  change  in  plans.  He  obtained  temporary  financial 
relief  by  the  issue  of  bonds  to  the  value  of  about  $70,000,000,  but  as  money 
again  began  to  get  scarce,  he  consented  to  a  change  in  plan,  and  in  October, 
1887,  a  temporary  lock  canal,  with  summit  level  above  the  flood  line  of  the 

[  61  ] 


Tv\N-D    DIVIDED cm\E,  WORkD,  TTKITED 

Chagres  River,  to  be  supplied  with  water  by  pumping,  was  decided  upon. 
Under  the  new  plan,  it  was  estimated  that  the  cost  would  reach  $351,000,000 
and  would  require  20  years  to  build.  There  had  already  been  spent  at  this  time 
nearly  $250,000,000,  and  only  about  two-fifths  of  the  work  had  been  ac- 
complished.    The  end  was  in  sight. 

Work  was  pushed  forward  under  the  new  plan  until  May,  1889,  when  the 
company  became  bankrupt  and  a  liquidator  was  appointed  to  take  charge. 
Under  the  liquidator,  the  work  gradually  diminished  and  was  finally  suspended 
on  May  15,  1889.  It  was  soon  realized  that  the  only  way  anything  could  be 
saved  to  the  stockholders  was  to  continue  the  project.  Late  in  1889,  the 
receiver  appointed  a  commission  composed  of  French  and  foreign  engineers, 
eleven  in  number,  to  visit  the  Isthmus  and  determine  whether  or  not  the  canal 
could  be  completed.  This  commission  reported  on  May  5,  1890,  that  a  lock 
canal  might  be  completed  within  eight  years  at  a  cost  of  $174,600,000.  It 
reported  that  the  plant  on  hand  was  in  good  condition  and  would  probably 


Old  French  locomotives.      One  hundred  and  nineteen  of  these  were  rebuilt 
and  used  by  the  Americans. 

suffice  for  completing  the  canal.  It  also  estimated  the  value  of  the  plant  and 
the  work  already  accomplished  at  $87,300,000,  or  one-half  of  the  total  cost. 

Meanwhile,  as  a  result  of  the  exposure  and  investigation  of  the  affairs  of 
the  old  company,  M.  De  Lesseps  and  his  son  Charles  were  sentenced  to  five 
years  imprisonment,  and  similar  sentences  were  imposed  upon  several  others 
of  their  associates.  The  French  Court  of  Appeals  annulled  the  sentence  of 
Charles  de  Lesseps,  and  that  against  his  father  was  never  executed  for,  at  that 
time,  January  10,  1893,  he  was  88  years  old  and  a  physical  and  mental  wreck; 
he  died  in  the  month  of  December,  following. 

As  the  Wyse  concession  had  nearly  expired,  the  receiver  obtained  from 
Colombia  an  extension  of  ten  years.  It  was  stipulated  that  the  new  company 
should  be  formed  and  work  upon  the  canal  resumed  on  or  before  February  28, 
1893.  As  this  condition  was  not  fulfilled,  a  second  extension  of  10  years  was 
obtained,  to  run  not  later  than  October  31,  1894. 

THE    SECOND    OR    NEW    COMPANY 

The  Compagnie  Nouvelle  du  Canal  de  Panama,  the  New  French  Canal 
Company,  as  it  is  generally  known,  was  organized  under  a  special  law  on 
October  20,  1894,  with  a  capital  stock  of  $13,000,000,  with  shares  valued  at  $20 
each.  Six  hundred  thousand  shares  were  sold  for  cash,  the  greater  part  being 
taken  by  the  receiver,  the  contractors,  and  others,  who  had  been  interested  in 

[  62  ] 


The  top  picture  shows  Bas  Obispo  in  the  first  French  Company's  days,  at  the  northern  end 
of  their  proposed  lock.  The  center  picture  shows  French  cranes  at  work.  The  French  using 
laborers  to  fill  cars  is  shown  in  the  lower  picture.  Cableways,  in  the  distance,  were  also  used  for 
handling  spoil. 

[  63  ] 


CTHB  TyAN-P  .  DIVIDED  ^THB  WORkD,  UNITED 

the  old  company  and  escaped  criminal  prosecution  by  taking  the  new  stock; 
and  50,000  shares  given  to  the  Colombian  Government  for  the  extension  of  the 
concession.  The  new  company  took  possession  in  1894,  and  work  was  im- 
mediately resumed  in  Culebra  Cut  with  a  force  large  enough  to  comply  with 
the  terms  of  the  concession.  As  excavation  work  at  this  point  was  necessary 
under  any  plans  that  might  be  decided  upon,  it  was  continued,  while  elaborate 
and  extensive  studies  of  the  Canal  project  were  begun  by  competent  engineers. 
The  plan  finally  adopted  by  the  new  company  involved  two  levels  above 
the  sea,  one  an  artificial  lake  to  be  created  by  a  dam  across  the  Chagres  River  at 


A  number  of  old  French  dredges,  which  were  valueless  except  as  junk, 
when  the  United  States  acquired  them. 

Bohio,  and  another  a  high  level  canal  through  Culebra  Cut  at  an  elevation  of 
68.08  feet  above  mean  tide,  to  be  fed  by  water  by  a  channel  leading  from  a 
reservoir  to  be  constructed  at  Alhajuela  in  the  upper  Chagres  River  valley. 
The  lake  level  was  to  be  reached  from  the  Atlantic  by  a  flight  of  two  locks,  and 
the  summit  level  by  a  second  flight  of  two  locks.  On  the  Pacific  side  four  other 
locks  were  provided  for,  the  two  middle  ones  at  Pedro  Miguel  being  combined 
in  one  flight,  and  the  others  being  located  at  Paraiso  and  Miraflores.  On  the 
Atlantic  side  there  was  to  be  a  sea  level  channel  to  Bohio,  17  miles  inland,  and 
on  the  Pacific  side  at  Miraflores,  about  8  miles  inland.  The  depth  of  the 
canal  was  to  be  29.5  feet,  with  a  bottom  width  of  98  feet.  The  locks  were  to  be 
in  duplicate,  738.22  feet  long,  82.02  feet  wide,  with  a  normal  depth  of  29.5 
feet.     The  lifts  were  to  vary  from  26  to  33  feet. 

A  second  plan  was  also  worked  out  in  which  the  upper  level  was  omitted, 
the  cut  through  the  divide  being  deepened  to  32  feet  above  sea  level,  making  the 
artificial  lake  created  by  the  dam  at  Bohio  the  summit  level.  Under  this  plan 
the  feeder  from  Alhajuela  was  omitted,  although  the  dam  was  to  be  retained  to 
control  the  Chagres.  One  flight  of  locks  on  the  Atlantic  side  and  one  lock  on 
the  Pacific  side  were  also  to  be  omitted.  The  estimated  cost  of  completing  the 
canal  under  this  plan  was  not  much  greater  than  the  first,  and  all  work  on  the 
first  plan  for  several  years  would  be  equally  available  under  the  second. 

Although  the  first  plan  was  adopted  on  December  30,  1899,  no  effort  was 
made  to  carry  it  out,  on  account  of  the  interest  being  shown  by  the  United  States 
in  a  canal  across  Nicaragua.  It  was  realized  that  if  the  United  States  should 
undertake  to  construct  such  a  waterway,  the  work  accomplished  and  the  plant 
on  the  Isthmus  would  be  practically  worthless.     In  1895,  there  was  a  force  of 

[  64  ] 


CTttE,  T^AN-P  .  DIVIDED  ^cfHE  WO^jyD,  TIKITED 

men  numbering  about  2,000  at  work  in  Culebra  Cut,  and  a  year  later  this  was 
increased  to  3,600.  This  was  the  largest  number  of  men  employed  under  the 
new  company,  for  only  enough  work  was  done  to  hold  the  concession  and  keep 
the  equipment  in  a  salable  condition.  The  French  at  that  time  were  beginning 
to  look  for  a  purchaser;  they  wanted  $100,000,000  for  the  work  and  equipment, 
but  the  only  likely  buyer  was  the  United  States.  The  Isthmian  Canal  Com- 
mission, appointed  by  the  Spooner  Act  of  1899,  reported  in  November,  1901, 
in  favor  of  the  Nicaragua  route  unless  the  French  company  was  willing  to  sell 
out  at  $40,000,000.  This  recommendation  became  a  law  on  June  28,  1902, 
and  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company  was  practically  forced  to  sell  for  that 
amount  or  get  nothing. 

Although  the  French  on  the  Isthmus  worked  under  difficulties  which 
eventually  forced  them  to  give  up  the  Canal  undertaking,  they  removed  with 
their  clumsy  side  excavators,  now  obsolete  dredges,  small  Decauville  cars  and 
toy  Belgium  locomotives,  a  considerable  amount  of  material  from  the 
Canal  prism,  a  large  part  of  which  has  been  found  useful  under  the  present 
plan. 

The  old  company  excavated  60,743,551  cubic  yards,  from  1881  to  1889,  and 
the  new  company  excavated  11,403,409  cubic  yards  up  to  1904,  a  total  of  78,- 
146,960  cubic  yards;  18,646,000  cubic  yards  of  this  total  were  taken  from 
Culebra  Cut,  the  operation  of  the  new  company  being  practically  confined  to 


j&4m* 

^^^^2 

F «& 

Ktf*      | 

^H 

*fe 

JjjPrj 

A  pile  of  old  French  dump  cars.     Many  tons  of  this  scrap  material  have  been  collected 

along  the  line  of  the  Canal. 

that  portion  of  the  work.  Of  this  total,  it  has  been  figured  that  29,908,000  cubic 
yards  have  been  useful  to  the  Americans.  The  old  company  dredged  a  channel 
from  deep  water  in  Panama  bay  to  the  wharves  at  Balboa  which  has  been  used 
by  ships  docking  at  that  port.  On  the  Atlantic  side,  the  channel  dredged  inland, 
known  as  the  French  canal,  was  found  useful  upon  deepening  in  bringing  sand 
and  stone  for  the  locks  and  spillway  concrete  at  Gatun. 

The  French  also  turned  over  valuable  surveys  and  studies  of  the  work, 
together  with  plans  that  have  been  found  of  great  value  to  the  American  or- 
ganization.    The  best  of  this  class  of  work  was  done  under  the  new  company. 

[  65  ] 


CTHE,  Tv\NP  .  DIVIDED  — ^rBJ&JSyOQ^D,  UNJTED 

This  is  especially  true  of  the  records  kept  of  the  flow  and  floods  of  the  Chagres 
River,  together  with  rainfall  records,  so  essential  to  the  present  plan. 

FRENCH    AID    TO    AMERICAN    PROJECT 

Much  of  the  work  of  preparation  during  the  first  two  years  of  American 
occupation — 1904-1905 — would  have  been  seriously  delayed  without  the 
French  supplies  and  equipment.  In  the  shops  and  storehouses  were  found  a 
plentiful  supply  of  repair  parts,  shop  tools,  stationary  engines,  material  and 
supplies  of  all  kinds  of  good  quality.  At  Gorgona,  where  the  principal  shops 
were  located,  known  during  the  French  times  as  Bas  Matachin  shops,  were 
found  sheds  filled  with  old  locomotives,  cranes  and  excavators.  One  hundred 
car  loads  of  foundry  and  machine  shop  material  were  removed  from  this  point. 
Repair  shops  were  found  at  Empire,  Paraiso,  Gatun  and  Bohio.  A  small 
machine  shop  was  uncovered  in  the  jungle  at  Caimito  Mulato,  when  American 


Another  view  of  a  part  of  the  old  machinery,  a  legacy  from  the  French.  All  of  the  junk 
along  the  line  of  the  Canal,  both  French  and  American,  is  being  turned  into  dollars,  having  been 
sold  to  a  Chicago  wrecking  concern. 

engineers  were  running  the  center  line  of  the  Canal.  There  was  also  a  dry  dock 
at  Cristobal,  which  was  originally  190  feet  long,  32  feet  wide  and  16  feet  deep 
over  the  sills  at  ordinary  high  tide.  At  Balboa  on  the  Pacific  side,  there  was 
located  a  repair  and  marine  shop  for  the  floating  equipment.  The  old  French 
shops  in  every  case  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  larger  and  better  equipped  shops 
maintained  by  the  Americans  during  the  period  of  construction. 

During  the  first  two  years  of  American  occupation,  French  locomotives 
were  the  only  ones  available  by  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission.  On  June  30, 
1906,  there  were  106  in  service,  and  only  15  American  locomotives.  The  same 
is  true  of  the  French  dump  cars.  In  1904,  there  were  308  in  service,  and  in 
1905,  over  2,000  had  been  repaired  and  put  in  commission,  as  compared  with 
300  American-built  cars.  At  the  present  time  there  are  about  100  French 
locomotives  and  200  Decauville  dump  cars  in  serviceable  condition.  In 
December,  1904,  there  were  six  old  French  excavators  working  in  Culebra  Cut. 

[  66  ] 


CTHB  Tv\N-D    DIVIDED q^HB  WO^P;  ITNJTED 

which  had  been  overhauled  and  placed  in  service.  These  were  similar  to  ladder 
dredges,  and  the  excavation  was  accomplished  by  an  endless  chain  of  buckets 
which  carried  earth  and  rock  from  one  side  and  dropped  it  into  a  hopper  from 
which  it  fell  into  dump  cars  on  the  other  side.  These  machines  were  effective 
only  when  working  in  soft  material.  They  remained  at  work  18  months  before 
they  were  replaced  by  modern  steam  shovels. 

The  floating  equipment  on  hand  was  considerable,  and  many  dredges, 
clapets  or  self-propelling  hopper  barges,  tugs,  launches,  etc.,  were  found  in  the 
marine  graveyards  at  Folks  River,  Cristobal,  and  in  the  mouth  of  the  Rio 
Grande  at  the  Pacific  entrance  to  the  Canal,  as  well  as  along  the  banks  of  the 
Chagres  River.  Many  of  these  were  floated,  rebuilt  and  placed  in  commission. 
On  account  of  the  excellent  material  used  in  the  construction  of  this  equipment, 
most  of  which  was  Scotch-built,  the  Americans  found  it  highly  profitable  to 
repair  them.     Heavy  coats  of  paint  and  oil,  which  20  or  more  rainy  seasons 


A  laborer  looking  for  his  belongings  after  a  flood.     The  damage  and  loss  of  property 
caused  by  the  floods  during  the  rainy  season  is  clearly  pictured  here. 

could  not  penetrate,  had  been  given  the  machinery  when  it  was  retired,  so  that 
when  the  hulls  were  not  worth  repairing,  the  valuable  parts  were  used  elsewhere. 
Several  dredges  were  reconstructed  from  parts  of  others.  A  Scotch  ladder  dredge 
with  a  capacity  of  about  130,000  cubic  yards  per  month  was  repaired  at  a  cost 
of  about  $30,000,  which,  when  new,  cost  about  $200,000.  At  the  present  time 
there  are  several  French  dredges  doing  excellent  work  on  the  Canal. 

Two  thousand,  one  hundred  and  forty-nine  buildings  scattered  along  the  line 
of  the  Panama  Railroad  were  included  in  the  turn-over.  These  were  generally 
small  and  ill-suited  for  use,  other  than  as  laborers'  barracks  or  storehouses,  but 
it  was  found  profitable  to  repair  some  1,500  of  them  even  after  they  had  stood 
unused  for  ten  years  or  more.  The  large  piles  of  French  scrap,  old  locomotives, 
boilers,  dump  cars,  parts  of  machines,  etc.,  which  used  to  be  one  of  the  sights 
along  the  line  of  the  Panama  railroad  have  slowly  disappeared.  Much  of  it 
has  been  sold  as  junk  to  contractors,  while  the  copper,  brass,  white  metal,  rails, 
and  cast  iron  have  been  used  in  the  foundry  at  Gorgona.     Old  French  rails 


lB  TvANP  .  DIVIDED CTHB  AVORDD^j^ITgD 

have  been  used  in  the  reinforcement  of  concrete  in  the  lock  walls,  for  the  repair 
of  dump  cars,  and  for  telephone  and  telegraph  poles. 

Seven  years  after  the  Canal  was  taken  over  from  the  French,  May,  1911, 
the  present  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  made  a  careful  official  estimate  of 
the  value  to  the  Commission  of  the  franchises,  equipment,  material,  work  done, 
and  property  of  various  kinds  for  which  the  United  States  paid  the  French  Canal 
Company  $40,000,000.  It  places  the  total  value  at  over  $42,000,000  divided 
as  follows: 

Excavation,  useful  to  the  Canal,  29,708,000  cubic  yards $25,389,240.00 

Panama  Railroad  Stock 9,644,320.00 

Plant  and  material,  used,  and  sold  for  scrap 2,112,063.00 

Buildings,  used   2,054,203.00 

Surveys,  plans,  maps,  and  records 2,000,000.00 

Land    1,000,000.00 

Clearings,  roads,  etc     100,000.00 

Ship  channel  in  Panama  Bay,  four  years'  use 500,000.00 

Total    $42,799,826.00 


A  mechanical  oddity — tree  grown  through  an  old  French  dump  car. 


[  OS  1 


N  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  organized  for  the  construction  of  the 
Canal  was  appointed  under  the  provisions  of  An  Act  of  Congress 
approved  June  28,  1902,  called  the  Spooner  Act.  This  Act  author- 
ized the  President  to  acquire,  in  behalf  of  the  United  States,  at  a  cost 
not  exceeding  $40,000,000,  the  rights,  franchises,  property,  etc.,  including  the 
shares  of  the  Panama  railroad,  owned  by  the  New  French  Canal  Company, 
and  to  obtain  from  the  Republic  of  Colombia  perpetual  control  of  the  necessary 
strip  of  land  across  the  Isthmus,  which  control  should  also  include  the  right  to 
perpetually  maintain  and  operate  the  Panama  railroad,  and  jurisdiction  over 
the  ports  at  either  end. 

If  the  President  should  be  unable  to  obtain  a  satisfactory  title  to  the  prop- 
erty, and  the  control  of  the  necessary  territory,  within  a  reasonable  time  and 
upon  reasonable  terms,  then  the  Commission  was  authorized  to  construct  a 
waterway  across  Nicaragua,  using  Lake  Nicaragua  and  the  San  Juan  River, 
after  the  President  had  first  obtained  perpetual  control,  by  treaty  with  Costa 
Rica  and  Nicaragua.  The  impossibility  of  the  United  States  to  come  to  a 
satisfactory  agreement  with  Colombia,  who  thought  that  the  United  States  was 
now  committed  to  construct  a  canal  across  Panama  and,  therefore,  could  be 
made  to  pay  a  larger  amount  than  first  offered,  led  to  the  revolution  of  November 
3,  1903,  by  which  Panama,  a  state  of  Colombia  became  the  Republic  of  Panama, 
and  the  signing  of  a  treaty  by  the  new  Republic  by  which  the  United  States  was 
granted  in  perpetuity  the  necessary  territory.  This  strip  of  land,  known  as 
the  Canal  Zone,  containing  about  436  square  miles,  extends  from  deep  water  in 
the  Atlantic  to  deep  water  in  the  Pacific  (three  miles  from  the  low  water  mark 
on  either  side),  and  five  miles  on  either  side  of  the  center  line  of  the  canal. 
Included  in  this  grant  are  the  Islands  of  Naos,  Perico,  Flamenco  and  Culebra 
in  the  Bay  of  Panama,  which  are  now  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  break- 
water, and  upon  which  fortifications  are  being  placed.  The  cities  of  Panama 
and  Colon  are  excluded  from  the  limits  of  the  Canal  Zone,  but  the  United  States 
exercises  sanitary  control  over  them,  and  also  has  the  right  to  maintain  public 
order  in  them  in  case  the  Republic  of  Panama  should  not  be  able  in  the  judg- 
ment of  the  United  States  to  do  so. 


(19  ] 


——————— 

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y 

MEMBERS  OF  THE  ISTHMIAN  CANAL  COMMISSION. 


COL.  GEO.  W.  GOETHALS,  U.  S.  A.,  COL.  WILLIAM  C.  GORGAS,  U.  S.  A., 

Chairman  and  Chief  Engineer.  Chief  Sanitary  Officer. 

COL.  HARRY  F.  HODGES,  U.  S.  A.,  H.  H.  ROUSSEAU,  CIVIL  ENGINEER,  U.  S.  NAVY, 

Assistant  Chief  Engineer.  Assistant  to  the  Chief  Engineer. 

i  'opyrlght,  Harris  &  Ewing,  Washington,  D.  ('. 


[  70  ] 


MEMBERS  OF  THE  ISTHMIAN  CANAL  COMMISSION. 


COL.   WILLIAM  L.  SIBERT,  U.  S.  A.. 
Division   Engineer  of  the  Atlantic  Division. 

HON.  RICHARD  LEE  METCALFE. 
Head  of  Department  of  Civil  Administration. 

Copyright,  Harris  &  Ewing 


COL.  D.  D.   GAILLARD, 
Division  Engineer  of  the  Central  Division. 

JOSEPH  BUCKLIN  BISHOP, 
Secretary. 


and  Clinedinst,   Washington,  D.  C. 

r  71   1 


CTKB  TiANP  ,  DIVIDED —CTTHE:  WORkD>  TTKITED 

As  compensation  to  the  Republic  of  Panama,  the  United  States  paid 
$10,000,000,  and  agreed  to  make  an  annual  payment  of  $250,000,  to  begin  nine 
years  after  the  date  of  the  treaty.  These  annual  payments  commenced  in 
February,  1913. 

J  ORGANIZATION    OF    THE    CANAL    COMMISSION 

The  first  meeting  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  was  held  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  on  March  22,  1904,  with  the  following  members  appointed  by  the 
President:  Rear- Admiral  John  G.  Walker,  Chairman;  Major-General  George 
W.  Davis,  U.  S.  A.,  William  Barclay  Parsons,  C.  E.,  William  H.  Burr,  C.  E., 
Benjamin  H.  Harrod,  C.  E.,  Ewald  Grunsky,  C.  E.,  and  Frank  J.  Hecker. 
On  May  9,  1904  Ex-President  Roosevelt,  by  Executive  Order,  placed  the 
immediate  supervision  of  its  work,  both  in  the  construction  of  the  canal  and  in 
the  exercise  of  such  governmental  powers  deemed  necessary  under  the  treaty 
with  Panama  in  the  Canal  Zone,  in  the  hands  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  William 
H.  Taft. 

The  full  Commission  first  arrived  on  the  Isthmus  on  April  5,  and  estab- 
lished temporary  headquarters  in  the  old  De  Lesseps  residence  in  Cristobal. 
A  thorough  study  was  made  of  the  plans  and  methods  of  work  as  carried  on  by 
the  French,  in  which  work  it  was  assisted  by  Maj.  William  M.  Black  and 
Lieutenant  Mark  Brooke,  U.  S.  Corps  of  Engineers,  and  by  M.  Renaudin,  the 
resident  representative  of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company.  From  this 
examination  it  was  found  that  new  and  extended  surveys  would  be  necessary 
before  any  of  the  problems  of  location  and  construction  could  be  settled,  so  the 
first  step  of  the  Commission  on  its  return  to  the  United  States  on  April  29,  was 
the  organization  of  engineering  parties.  Five  of  these  were  organized,  the  first 
leaving  for  the  Isthmus  about  the  middle  of  May,  and  the  others  shortly  after. 
Surveys  and  investigations  were  made  by  these  parties  of  the  proposed  harbor 
improvements  of  Colon,  the  proposed  dams  for  the  control  of  the  Chagres  River 
at  Gatun,  Bohio  and  Gamboa,  and  the  design  of  water  works  and  sewers  for 
the  cities  of  Colon  and  Panama. 

TAKING    POSSESSION CHANGE    IN    CHIEF    ENGINEER 

The  United  States  represented  by  Lieutenant  Brooke,  U.  S.  A.,  took 
possession  of  the  French  canal  property  on  May  4,  1904,  and  operations  were 
continued  with  the  same  employes  and  laborers,  about  700,  that  had  been  left 
by  the  French  company,  for  work  had  been  continuous  in  Culebra  Cut  from 
the  beginning  in  1881,  except  for  a  few  years,  in  order  to  hold  the  franchise. 
Although  neither  the  equipment  nor  the  organization  of  this  force  was  adequate, 
it  was  considered  advisable  to  maintain  it  for  the  time  being  and  to  gradually 
introduce  necessary  changes  in  the  organization  and  in  the  equipment. 

Lieutenant  Brooke  remained  in  charge  of  this  work  until  the  arrival  of 
Major-General  Davis,  who  was  appointed  Governor  of  the  Isthmus  on  May  8, 
1904,  and  arrived  on  May  17.  On  the  day  of  his  arrival  it  was  announced  to 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Canal  Zone  that  the  territory  had  been  occupied  by  the 
United  States  of  America.  This  was  a  little  bit  too  precipitate  for  the  Pana- 
manians who  had  been  accustomed  under  the  French  regime  to  much  speech- 
making,  feasting,  and  champagne  drinking  when  any  undertaking  was  put  into 
operation,  so  they  protested  to  the  State  Department,  to  the  end  that,  to  their 
minds,  more  fitting  ceremonies  were  later  indulged  in.  Governor  Davis  was 
also  placed   in  temporary  charge  of  the  construction  work  until  the  Chief 

[  72  ] 


**"""ai 

Ex- President 
Theodore  Roosevelt 

L 

Ex- President 
William  HTaft 


(XL 


p 

President 
Woodrow  Wilson 

^ 

The  chroniclers  of  history  for  all  time  will  associate  the  names  of  Roosevelt,  Taft  and  Wilson 
with  the  world's  greatest  undertaking, — the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal.  Students  of  the 
subject  will  doubtless  concede  that  to  Theodore  Roosevelt  should  be  accorded  the  distinction  of 
inaugurating  the  enterprise,  to  his  successor,  former  President  Taft  should  belong  the  honor  of 
four  years  of  faithful  service  in  carrying  forward  the  stupendous  work  so  encouragingly  begun, 
and  to  President  Woodrow  Wilson  falls  the  duty  of  installing  the  splendid  success  which  the  re- 
sources, perseverance  and  indomitable  courage  of  American  citizenship  have  rendered  possible. 

\  7-A  1 


CTf\E,  Tv\ND    DIVIDED CT1\E  WORL>D,  TTKITED 

Engineer,  Mr.  John  F.  Wallace,  entered  upon  his  duties  on  June  1,  1904.  Mr. 
Wallace  resigned  as  Chief  Engineer  on  June  25,  1905,  after  serving  one  year, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  John  F.  Stevens  on  July  20,  1905. 

Mr.  Wallace,  who  had  become  dissatisfied  with  the  working  methods  of 
the  first  Commission  was  made  a  member  of  the  Commission  under  an  Executive 
Order  dated  April  1,  1905,  which  reorganized  it,  and  gave  to  him  full  control 
in  the  department  of  construction  and  engineering.  This  reorganization  was 
brought  about  by  the  Secretary  of  War  who,  by  direction  of  the  President  in 
March,  1905,  requested  the  resignations  of  the  commissioners,  which  were  at 
once  tendered.  It  was  believed  that  this  change  would  make  a  more  effective 
force  for  doing  the  required  work,  and  do  away  with  the  long  delays  occasioned 
in  purchasing  material  and  supplies  and  in  the  accomplishment  of  work  by 
government  "red  tape"  which  had  become  so  irksome  to  Mr.  Wallace.  His 
resignation  shortly  after  this  change,  six  days  after  his  return  to  the  Isthmus 
from  Washington,  was  hard  to  understand,  but  it  is  possible  that  the  question  of 
health  entered  considerably  into  his  decision,  for  it  was  at  this  time  that  the 
first  outbreak  of  yellow  fever  among  the  Americans  had  occurred  and  the  first 
victim  was  Mrs.  Frank  Seager,  the  wife  of  Mr.  Wallace's  private  secretary. 

THE    NEW    COMMISSION 

The  new  Commission  created  under  the  above  mentioned  Order  consisted 
of  the  same  number  of  members,  seven,  but  full  power  was  practically  vested  in 
three  members  who  were  placed  in  charge  of  the  three  executive  departments 
created.  One  department  was  under  the  direction  of  the  Chairman  of  the 
Commission,  Theodore  P.  Shonts,  and  took  charge  of  the  fiscal  affairs,  the 
purchase  and  delivery  of  material  and  supplies,  the  accounts,  bookkeeping, 
and  audits,  and  the  commercial  operations  in  the  United  States  of  the  Panama 
railroad  and  steamship  lines,  with  headquarters  in  Washington;  another,  under 
the  Governor  of  the  Zone,  Charles  E.  Magoon,  which  looked  after  the  ad- 
ministration and  enforcement  of  law  in  the  Zone,  the  sanitation  of  the  Canal 
Zone  and  the  cities  of  Panama  and  Colon,  and  the  custody  of  all  supplies  and 
construction  necessary  for  sanitary  purposes,  and  the  third,  under  the  Chief 
Engineer,  John  F.  Wallace,  which  had  charge  of  the  work  of  construction,  the 
custody  of  all  supplies  and  plant  on  the  Isthmus  and  the  practical  operation  of 
the  railroad  on  the  Isthmus  with  special  view  to  its  utilization  in  the  Canal 
construction  work. 

An  executive  committee  of  not  less  than  three  members,  a  majority  of 
whom  constituted  a  quorum  was  also  created  to  act  in  place  of  the  full  com- 
mission, which  had  heretofore  only  met  quarterly,  during  the  intervals  between 
meetings,  in  order  to  secure  the  uninterrupted  course  of  the  work.  This 
executive  committee  met  twice  a  week  in  the  office  of  the  Governor  on  the 
Isthmus  until  it  was  abolished  on  November  17,  1906. 

The  new  department  of  Government  and  Sanitation  was  placed  in  charge 
of  Mr.  Charles  E.  Magoon,  as  a  member  of  the  Commission,  vice  Major-Gen- 
eral  Geo.  W.  Davis,  who  returned  to  the  United  States  on  May  9,  1905,  in  ac- 
cordance with  instructions  received  from  the  Secretary  of  War,  on  account  of 
failing  health.  When  General  Davis  left  the  Isthmus  he  turned  the  work  over  to 
Col.  W.  C.  Gorgas,  the  Chief  Sanitary  Officer,  who  acted  as  Governor  until 
May  25,  when  Governor  Magoon  assumed  the  duties  of  his  office. 

The  new  Commission  now  consisted  of  seven  members,  as  follows:     Chair- 

[  74  ] 


SOME  OF  THE  MEN  ON  THE  BIG  JOB. 
(1.)  Hezekiah  A.  Gudger,  Chief  Justice  of  the  Canal  Zone  Supreme  Court.  (2.)  Frank 
Feuille,  Counsel  and  Chief  Attorney  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  and  the  Panama  Rail- 
road. (3.)  H.  A.  A.  Smith,  Examiner  of  Accounts.  (4.)  A.  S.  Zinn,  Resident  Engineer  in  the 
Central  Division,  who  has  been  identified  with  the  work  in  Culebra  Cut  since  1906.  (5.)  Henry 
Goldmark,  designing  engineer,  in  charge  of  the  lock  gates  of  the  Canal.  (6.)  T.  B.  Monniche, 
designing  engineer,  in  charge  of  the  emergency  dams  of  the  locks.  (7.)  John  H.  McLean, 
Disbursing  Officer  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission.  (8.)  Capt.  Robert  E.  Wood,  U.  S.  A., 
Chief  Quartermaster  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission.  (9.)  W.  G.  Comber,  Resident  Engineer 
of  the  Sixth  (Dredging)  Division.  (10.)  Capt.  Charles  W.  Barber,  Chief  of  Canal  Zone  Police. 
(11.)  C.  E.  Weidman,  Chief  of  the  Fire  Department.  (12.)  Tom  M.  Cooke,  Chief,  Division  of 
Posts,  Customs,  and  Revenues.  (13.)  Lieut.  Col.  Eugene  T.  Wilson,  Subsistence  Officer.  (14.) 
George  M.  Wells,  Resident  Engineer,  Department  of  Municipal  Engineering.  (15.)  Harry  O. 
Cole,  Resident  Engineer,  Fifth  Division. 

[  75  ] 


JvAN-D  .piVIPED—  q-HE  WOBLkD,  TTKITED 

man,  Theodore  P.  Shonts,  Charles  E.  Magoon,  also  Governor  of  the  Canal 
Zone,  Rear- Admiral  Mordecai  T.  Endicott,  Brigadier-General  Peter  C.  Hains, 
U.  S.  A.  (retired),  Col.  Oswald  H.  Ernst,  U.  S.  A.,  Benjamin  M.  Harrod,  and 
John  F.  Wallace,  also  Chief  Engineer. 

COMMISSION    AGAIN    REORGANIZED 

On  November  17,  1906,  the  commission  was  again  reorganized  by  Execu- 
tive Order  in  order  to  promote  harmony  and  to  secure  results  by  more  direct 
methods  and  a  centralization  of  power.  In  order  to  do  this,  the  following 
departments  were  created  under  the  new  organization:  Chairman,  Chief 
Engineer,  General  Counsel,  who  took  over  the  duties  of  the  Governor,  Chief 
Sanitary  Officer,  General  Purchasing  Officer,  General  Auditor,  Disbursing 
Officer,  and  Manager  of  Labor  and  Quarters. 

On  September  25,  1906,  Gov.  Charles  E.  Magoon,  was  transferred  to 
administer  affairs  in  Cuba,  and  was  succeeded  by  Richard  Reid  Rogers  the 
General  Counsel  in  Washington  on  November  19,  1906.  While  Mr.  Rogers 
was  in  Washington,  Mr.  H.  D.  Reed  acted  as  head  of  the  department  on  the 
Isthmus  until  the  arrival  of  Mr.  Jo.  C.  S.  Blackburn  who  was  appointed  as 
Head  of  the  Department  of  Civil  Administration  on  April  1,  1907.  On  April 
2,  1907,  the  authority  of  the  Governor,  or  Chief  Executive  of  the  Canal  Zone, 
was  transferred  by  order  of  the  Secretary  of  War  to  the  Chairman's  office,  so 
from  that  time  the  Chairman  and  Chief  Engineer  has  in  reality  been  Governor 
of  the  Canal  Zone  also. 

Mr.  Shonts  resigned  effective  March  4,  1907,  and  the  resignation  of 
General  Hains,  Major  Harrod,  and  Rear-Admiral  Endicott,  were  accepted  on 
March  16,  1907.  Finally,  Mr.  Stevens  resigned  effective  April  1,  1907.  The 
resignation  of  Mr.  Stevens  was  as  great  a  surprise  as  that  of  Mr.  Wallace. 
According  to  the  report  current  at  the  time,  the  chief  engineer  became  alarmed 
over  the  possibility  of  awarding  the  contract  for  the  construction  of  the  canal 
to  the  Oliver-Bangs  combination,  and  wrote  a  letter  to  the  President,  setting 
forth  that  the  canal  organization  had  been  pretty  well  perfected;  that  more  dirt 
had  been  taken  out  during  the  previous  30  days  than  had  ever  been  taken  out 
before  in  the  same  length  of  time;  that  he  did  not  care  to  share  the  work  of 
building  the  canal  with  anyone,  nor  be  hampered  with  men  less  familiar  with  the 
subject  than  himself.  He  intimated  that  if  his  wishes  were  not  complied  with 
he  would  quit.  The  letter  is  said  to  have  caused  ex-President  Roosevelt 
something  of  a  shock,  but  with  .his  characteristic  spontaneity  of  action,  he  cabled 
acceptance  of  the  "resignation." 

In  order  to  get  competent  men  who  were  used  to  working  under  Govern- 
ment regulations  and  orders,  and  who  would  "stick,"  ex-President  Roosevelt 
resorted  to  the  Army,  with  the  result  that  three  officers  of  the  Corps  of  Engineers, 
U.  S.  A.,  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks,  U.  S.  N.,  an  officer  of  the 
Medical  Corps,  U.  S.  A.,  and  two  civilians  were  appointed  in  their  places,  thus 
practically  abandoning  the  plan  of  carrying  on  the  work  under  civilian  direction. 
Under  this  new  organization  a  combination  of  the  positions  of  Chairman  and 
Chief  Engineer  was  effected,  and  the  creation  of  the  Department  of  Sanitation, 
distinct  from  Civil  Administration  was  made.  It  was  also  required  that  the 
commissioners  take  their  station  on  the  Isthmus  and  thus  be  in  direct  touch 

[70  ] 


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CTHE,  TvAN-P    DIVIDED—  GTTKEj  WQBJyB-IJNJTED 

with  the  work  under  their  charge.  This  new  commission  assumed  its  duties 
on  April  1,  1907,  and  consisted  of  the  following: 

Col.  Geo.  W.  Goethals,  U.  S.  A.,  Chairman  and  Chief  Engineer;  Col.  D.  D. 
Gaillard,  U.  S.  A.,  Head  of  Department  of  Excavation  and  Dredging;  Lieut.- 
Col.  Wm.  L.  Sibert,  U.  S.  A.,  Head  of  Department  of  Lock  and  Dam  Construc- 
tion; Col.  W.  C.  Gorgas,  U.  S.  A.,  Chief  Sanitary  Officer;  Civil  Engineer  H.  H. 
Rousseau,  U.  S.  N.,  Head  of  Department  of  Municipal  Engineering,  Motive 
Power  and  Machinery  and  Building  Construction;  Jackson  Smith,  Manager, 
Labor,  Quarters  and  Subsistence;  Jo.  C.  S.  Blackburn,  Head  of  Department  of 
Civil  Administration;  Joseph  Bucklin  Bishop,  Secretary. 

The  personnel  of  the  above  commission  has  remained  unchanged  with  three 
exceptions.  Jackson  Smith  resigned  on  September  15,  15)08,  and  the  depart- 
ment of  labor  and  quarters  is  now  a  part  of  the  Quartermaster's  Department 
under  direction  of  Captain  R.  E.  Wood,  U.  S.  A.,  and  the  Subsistence  Depart- 


John  F.  Wallace,  first  Chief  Engineer  of  the 
Panama  Canal.  He  entered  upon  his  duties  June 
1,  1904,  and  resigned  June  25,  1905. 


John  F.  Stevens,  second  Chief  Engineer.  He 
was  appointed  July  20,  1905,  and  resigned  April 
1,  1907,  Col.  Geo.  W.  Goethals,  taking  his  place. 


Copyright,  Clinedinst,  Washington,  1).  C. 

ment  under  direction  of  Major  Eugene  T.  Wilson,  U.  S.  A.,  as  a  separate  depart- 
ment. Mr.  Jo.  C.  S.  Blackburn  resigned,  effective  December  4,  1909,  and  was 
succeeded  on  May  13,  1910,  by  Mr.  Maurice  H.  Thatcher,  Mr.  Rousseau  acting 
as  Head  of  the  Department  during  the  interval.  Mr.  Thatcher  resigned,  effective 
on  June  14,  1913,  and  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  Richard  L.  Metcalfe,  the  present 
head  of  the  department. 

The  Departments  of  Excavation  and  Dredging  and  Lock  and  Dam 
Construction  were  abolished  and,  on  July  1,  1908,  became  the  Atlantic  Division, 
under  Colonel  Sibert,  having  charge  of  the  dredging  operations  in  the  Atlantic 
entrance,  and  the  lock,  dam  and  spillway  work  at  Gatun,  and  the  General 
Division,  under  Colonel  D.  D.  Gaillard,  which  has  charge  of  the  excavation  in 
the  Culebra  Cut  section.  On  July  15,  1908,  the  Pacific  Division  was  organized 
and  charged  with  the  lock,  dam  and  spillway  work  at  Pedro  Miguel  and  Mira- 
flores,  and  the  dredging  work  in  the  Pacific  entrance  under  Mr.  S.  B.  William- 
son, Division  Engineer.      Upon  the  resignation  of  Mr.  Williamson  on  December 

[  78  ] 


CTHJB  TyAN-D    DIVIDED cm\E  WOBLkD>  TTKITED 

12,  1912,  the  Pacific  Division  was  abolished  and  its  work  was  placed  under  the 
immediate  charge  of  the  Chief  Engineer,  as  the  Fifth  Division  of  the  Department 
of  Construction  and  Engineering.  On  May  1,  1913,  the  dredging  work  of  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Divisions  was  consolidated  under  Mr.  W.  G.  Comber, 
Resident  Engineer,  forming  the  sixth  Division  of  the  Chief  Engineer's  office. 
The  Department  of  Municipal  Engineering,  Motive  Power  and  Machinery,  and 
Building  Construction,  was  abolished  on  August  1,  1908,  and  became  a  part  of 
the  Department  of  Construction  and  Engineering  with  Mr.  Rousseau,  Assistant 
to  the  Chief  Engineer  in  charge.  The  present  commission  consists  of  the 
following  members: 

Colonel  Geo.  W,  Goethals,  U.  S.  A.,  Chairman  and  Chief  Engineer; 
Colonel  H.  F.  Hodges,  U.  S.  A.,  Assistant  Chief  Engineer  (Appointed  July  14, 
1908,  vice  Jackson  Smith);  Civil  Engineer  H.  H.  Rousseau,  U.  S.  N.,  Assistant 
to  the  Chief  Engineer;  Colonel  D.  D.  Gaillard,  U.  S.  A.,  Division  Engineer, 
Central  Division;  Lieutenant-Col.  Win.  L.  Sibert,  U.  S.  A.,  Division  Engineer, 
Atlantic  Division;  Colonel  W.  C.  Gorgas,  U.  S.  A.,  Chief  Sanitary  Officer; 
Richard  L.  Metcalfe,  Head  of  Department  of  Civil  Administration;  Joseph 
Bucklin  Bishop,  Secretary. 

Of  these  eight  men,  Colonel  Gorgas  is  the  only  one  who  has  been  in  the 
service  since  the  inauguration  of  the  work.  Colonel  Gaillard  left  the  Isthmus 
on  August  9,  1913,  on  special  leave  of  absence,  suffering  from  a  nervous  break- 
down, due  to  his  long  service  on  the  Isthmus,  and  it  is  probable  that  he  will  not 
return. 

THE    PURCHASING    END 

The  Commission  maintains  an  office  in  Washington  in  charge  of  Major 
F.  C.  Boggs,  U.  S.  A.,  who  fills  the  positions  of  Chief  of  Office,  and  General 
Purchasing  Officer.  The  work  is  apportioned  among  the  following  divisions: 
General  Office,  Disbursing  Office,  Office  of  Assistant  Examiner  of  Accounts, 
Appointment  Division,  Correspondence  and  Record  Division,  and  Purchasing 
Department.  The  Appointment  Division  has  to  do  with  filling  requisitions 
for  American  employes,  and  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1913,  2,065 
persons  were  tendered  employment  on  the  Isthmus  in  grades  above  that  of 
laborer.  Of  this  number,  1,183  accepted  and  were  appointed,  covering  59 
different  positions.  The  purchasing  branch  was  organized  on  August  15,  1907, 
and  placed  under  the  supervision  of  the  Chief  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  A.,  with  an 
officer  of  the  Corps  of  Engineers  in  charge.  Additional  offices  for  the  purchase 
of  materials  are  maintained  at  New  York,  New  Orleans,  and  San  Francisco. 
Medical  and  hospital  supplies  are  purchased  through  the  Medical  Supply 
Depot  of  the  Army  in  New  York.  Nearly  all  supplies  are  purchased  under 
contract  by  means  of  advertising  for  bids  and  making  awards  thereon,  and  all 
material  is  carefully  inspected  before  shipment,  although  the  right  is  reserved 
of  making  final  inspection  on  the  Isthmus.  As  an  illustration  of  the  work  of 
this  department,  a  total  of  7,087  orders  were  placed  during  the  last  fiscal  year 
to  the  value  of  $12,335,973.12. 


[79  ] 


^lAKINGTHElSfflMWEALTHFUL 


HE  high  mortality  among  employes  encountered  by  the  builders  of  the 
Panama  railroad  and  by  the  French  during  their  operations  indicated 
that,  to  keep  a  suitable  working  force  on  the  Isthmus,  the  Canal 
Zone,  and  the  cities  of  Panama  and  Colon  would  have  to  be  made 
healthy.  Realizing  this,  one  of  the  first  divisions  of  the  canal  work  to  be 
established  was  that  of  sanitation  under  Col.  W.  C.  Gorgas,  who,  prior  to  his 
arrival  on  the  Isthmus,  had  successfully  stamped  out  yellow  fever  and  sub- 
stantially reduced  the  high  malaria  rate  in  Havana,  Cuba.  This  division  was 
at  first  a  part  of  the  Department  of  Government  of  the  Canal  Zone,  but,  on 
account  of  the  importance  of  the  sanitary  work  it  was  later  made  a  distinct  and 
separate  department.  That  its  work  under  the  direction  of  Colonel  Gorgas 
has  been  entirely  successful,  may  at  this  day,  be  readily  seen.     Instead  of  a 

SDest  hole  with  an  unsavory  reputation  as  "a  white  man's  graveyard,"  the 
[sthmus  has  become  a  winter  resort  for  an  increasing  number  of  tourists  each 
year.  Not  only  was  it  necessary  to  free  the  Isthmus  from  pestilence  in  order 
that  the  canal  work  might  be  accomplished,  but  it  was  just  as  necessary  that  it 
be  kept  in  that  condition  for  all  time. 

Dr.  Ronald  Ross  of  the  British  Army  in  India  is  credited  with  the  discovery, 
through  successive  experiments  in  1898,  that  the  Anopheles  mosquito  is  the 
germ-carrier  for  malaria.  This  mosquito  bites  an  infected  person  and  carries 
the  germ  to  other  persons.  In  the  same  way  another  species  of  mosquito,  the 
Stegomyia,  was  found  to  be  responsible  for  yellow  fever.  The  theory  of  yellow 
fever  transmission  by  mosquitoes  was  exploited  as  early  as  1883,  by  Dr.  Carlos 
Finlay  of  Havana.  The  definite  and  indisputable  test  was  made  in  July,  1900, 
at  Quemados,  Cuba,  by  four  members  of  the  United  States  Army  Medical 
Corps,  who  had  been  appointed  as  a  commission  for  the  study  of  the  disease. 
These  four  men  were  Doctors  Walter  Reed,  Jesse  W.  Lazear,  James  Carroll, 
and  Aristides  Agramonte.  One  of  these  men,  Dr.  Lazear  who  allowed  himself 
to  be  bitten  by  an  infected  mosquito,  died  from  the  resulting  attack  of  yellow 
fever.  Dr.  Carroll  also  contracted  yellow  fever  during  the  experiments,  but 
recovered.  A  reward  of  $200  was  offered  to  encourage  volunteers,  and  of  the 
many  enlisted  men  who  took  part  in  the  experiments,  the  first  to  present  them- 
selves were  John  R.  Kissinger  and  John  J.  Moran,  both  of  whom  stated  that 

\  80  1 


CLEANING    DRAINAGE    DITCH 


L!    /    IjP^'^        ^^^^^ 


rc  Sf?EEO^G 


a 


METHOD  OF  OILING 


^ 


■ 


& 


Every  square  foot  of  swamp  was  a  breeding  place  for  mosquitoes.  Draining  swamps,  sub- 
soiling  and  burning  grass,  are  some  of  the  methods  used  in  the  prevention  of  mosquito  breed- 
ing. The  man  in  the  upper  picture  is  shown  burning  grass  which  grows  along  the  open  ditches 
and  drains.     In  the  lower  picture  he  is  shown  spraying  larvacide  on  the  grass. 


SI 


cpflB  TyAN-D    DIVIDED CfHE  WQgJfeg»_I I liJTgg 


they  would  undergo  the  experiment  only 
on  condition  that  they  should  receive  no 
reward  for  such  service.  They  both 
contracted  the  fever  and  recovered; 
Moran  is  now  in  the  employ  of  the 
Commission  on  the  Isthmus.  After  ex- 
tensive experiments,  the  mosquito  trans- 
mission theory  came  to  be  fully  accepted 
by  experts  on  tropic  diseases. 

By  this  knowledge  the  work  on  the 
Isthmus  was  greatly  simplified.  The 
prophylactic  method  of  fighting  yellow 
fever  and  reducing  malaria  was  found  to 
be  in  the  extermination  of  the  mosquito 
as  far  as  possible,  and  screening  dwel- 
lings against  them.  As  soon  as  wire 
netting  could  be  brought  to  the  Isthmus 
all  buildings  in  the  Canal  Zone  were 
properly  screened.  The  destructive 
methods  consist  in  the  draining  of  low 
places,  removal  of  vegetation,  in  the 
damp  shade  of  which  mosquitoes  breed, 
and  the  killing  of  larvae  by  oiling  pools 
and  streams  that  could  not  be  drained. 

At  the  outset,  Colonel  Gorgas  was  hampered  by  the  failure  of  the  Com- 
mission in  Washington  to  realize  the  immediate  necessity  for  large  expenditures 


)  j 

N        A 

HP  i 

K    i%^ 

i^lSL 

Btt^K^L  j| 

^K^K^K^K^Kr. 

w~~-    vl 

fci'V--  ^i 

'    H 

jj^Pflr 

A  mosquito  disguise,  which  took  first  prize  in  the 
masquerade  contest  in  Panama  Carnival  of  1904. 


The  genus  Stegomyia  mosquito,  male  and  female.  The  female   on   the   left,  the   male   in   the 

center  and  the  larva  on  the   right.      The   species   has  distinctive   markings,  and   the    harp-shaped 

design  near  the  head  is  found  on  no  other  mosquito.  The  male  does   not  bite,   and   is,    therefore, 
harmless;  it  is  the  female  that  causes  all  the  trouble. 

[82  ] 


It  took  months  of  labor,  and  sortie  after  sortie,  before  the  mosquito  horde  began  to  thin.  A 
gang  of  about  900  natives  was  at  one  time  engaged  with  ladders  and  paste,  sealing  all  the  crevices 
in  the  houses  in  Panama,  prior  to  fumigation.  Streets  were  paved,  a  water  system  installed,  and 
a  general  clean-up  was  made. 


[  83  ] 


CTHE,  Tv\N-D    DIVIDED cm&  WOELDD,  TTXITED 


4^flfc?Z  inwjwry 

■■p*=v; 

**58^ 

- 

The  quarantine  station  on  Culebra  Island  in  Panama  Bay.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  Isthmus 
is  hemmed  in  on  both  sides,  by  plague-infected  ports,  the  most  rigid  precautions  are  observed,  and 
steamers  from  these  ports  are  held  in  quarantine,  unless  they  have  been  seven  days  at  sea. 

for  the  purpose  of  exterminating  the  mosquito.  This  was  later  remedied,  and 
the  purse  strings  were  loosened.  An  outbreak  of  yellow  fever  among  the 
recently  unacclimated  Americans  began  in  December,  1904,  and  lasted  until 
December,  1905.  During  the  epidemic  there  were  in  all  246  cases  and  34  deaths. 
Of  this  number,  134  of  the  cases  and  all  of  the  deaths  were  among  canal 
employes.  The  constantly  increasing  headway  made  by  the  disease  in  the 
early  months  of  1905  caused  a  panic  among  the  employes.  A  great  many  of 
them  left  the  Isthmus  as  soon  as  they  could  obtain  accommodations  on  the 
overcrowded  steamships.  This  was  an  object  lesson,  and  resulted  in  a  partial 
suspension  of  actual  canal  construction  work  until  the  eradication  of  yellow 
fever  was  effected.  In  addition  to  a  rigid  quarantine,  a  relentless  fight  was 
waged  against  the  mosquito,  with  the  result  that  the  last  case  of  yellow  fever 
occurred  in  May,  1906,  two  years  after  the  work  started. 

THE    FIGHT    ON    THE    MOSQUITO 

When  a  case  of  yellow  fever  was  reported  or  found  by  one  of  the  corps  of 


Colon  Hospital,  on  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  Isthmus.     It  stands  on  the  sea  beach,  and  some 

of  the  wards  are  built  over  the  water. 

[  84  1 


The  above  comparison  of — before  and  after  paving — is  not  exaggerated.  When  the  Ameri- 
cans took  charge  of  the  work  many  of  the  streets  in  Colon  and  Panama  City  were  veritable  bogs 
in  the  rainy  season.  Now,  both  cities  compare  favorably  in  clean,  well  paved  streets,  with  others 
of  their  size. 


[85] 


CmE   Tv\N-D    DIVIDED— CTTKE/  WOl^D^JJ^rn^D 

inspectors  in  the  course  of  a  house-to-house  search  for  cases,  the  patient  was 
immediately  taken  to  the  hospital  and  placed  in  a  room  protected  by  screening. 
The  next  step  was  the  thorough  fumigation  of  the  house  from  which  the  patient 
had  been  removed,  in  order  to  kill  any  infected  mosquitoes  that  might  remain. 
Finally  an  endeavor  was  made  to  locate  and  fumigate  the  source  of  infection. 
When  the  epidemic  of  1905  was  at  its  height,  the  plan  of  fumigating  every  house 
in  the  cities  of  Panama  and  Colon,  whether  or  not  there  had  been  cases  of  yellow 
fever  in  them,  was  carried  out.  The  native  residents  at  first  submitted  to  the 
fumigation  with  poor  grace,  as  they  are  immune  and  could  not  see  the  necessity 


The  Dispensary  at  Ancon.     Dispensaries  and  Field  Hospitals  are  maintained  at  all  the 
important  Canal  Zone  settlements  for  first  aid  treatment. 

for  it.  Later,  they  became  more  reconciled,  but  complaints  were  numerous. 
There  is  now  pending  in  Congress  a  claim  for  $50,000  to  cover  damages  due 
to  a  fire  in  the  Malambo  district  of  Panama  in  the  spring  of  1905,  which  is 
claimed  to  have  been  started  by  the  overturning  of  a  fumigating  oven. 

The  fight  against  the  Anopheles,  the  malaria-carrying  mosquito,  has  been 
continuous,  for  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  eliminate  it  entirely.  This  species, 
unlike  the  Stegomyia,  is  strong  on  the  wing  and  is,  therefore,  able  to  enter  the 
cities  and  villages  after  breeding  in  the  swamps  and  stagnant  pools  in  the  out- 
skirts. To  counteract  this  as  much  as  possible,  miles  of  drainage  ditches  have 
been  constructed  in  the  vicinity  of  the  canal  towns;  small  streams  are  kept 
cleaned  out  to  facilitate  the  flow  of  water;  swamps  have  been  filled  in  and  grass 
and  rank  vegetation  kept  cut.      Regulations  are  also  enforced  against  allowing 

[86] 


The  Government  operates  two  main  hospitals.  One  at  Ancon  and  the  other  at  Colon.  The 
Ancon  Hospital  is  the  larger  and  best  equipped,  with  a  reputation  in  the  Tropics  second  to  none. 
It  was  begun  by  the  French  in  1883,  but  many  improvements  have  been  made  by  the  Americans. 


[87] 


X)AMD   piVlDED — q^HKj\(\rom^jQjNjrr^n 


There  are  47  wards  in  the  Ancon  Hospital,  and  this  is  the  interior  of  one  of  them.  The  white 
American  employes,  European  laborers  and  the  negroes,  are  cared  for  in  separate  wards.  There 
are  private  wards  also,  and  one  for  charity  cases.  The  Canal  Commission  furnishes  free  medical 
treatment  to  all  of  its  employes. 

any  water  receptacles,  like  tin  cans,  etc.,  being  thrown  into  the  bush  where  they 
might  fill  during  a  rainstorm  and  make  ideal  breeding  places  for  the  mosquito 
larvae.  Such  possible  breeding  places  as  cannot  be  eliminated  by  draining 
and  filling  are  sprayed  with  a  form  of  oil,  called  larvaecide,  which  destroys 
the  mosquito  larvae  as  they  come  to  the  surface  of  the  water  to  breathe.  In 
spite  of  all  these  efforts  there  are  many  cases  of  malaria,  but  the  number  has 
been  rapidly  reduced,  and  the  type  of  disease  has  been  reduced  from  a  virulent 
to  a  comparatively  mild  type.  While  the  mortality  from  malaria  was  never  so 
high  as  other  forms  of  tropic  disease,  Colonel  Gorgas  always  considered  it  one 
of  the  most  important  on  account  of  the  heavy  sick  rate.  Medicinally,  the 
disease  is  treated  by  quinine,  many  thousands  of  pounds  of  which  have  been 
used  in  the  hospitals  and  issued  from  the  dispensaries  maintained  in  each  canal 
zone  village. 

&  CLEANING    HOUSE 

While  a  war  of  extermination  was  being  waged  against  the  mosquito,'  it 
was  also  absolutely  necessary  to  clean  house,  especially  in  the  cities  of  Panama 
and  Colon.  The  latter  place,  the  site  of  which  was  partly  a  tidal  swamp,  had 
to  be  filled  in.  Proper  sewer  systems  were  installed  in  both  cities,  where  none 
existed  before,  unless  the  open  drains  in  the  streets,  filled  with  refuse  and  other 
filth,  could  be  called  sewers.  Suitable  water  systems  also  had  to  be  introduced, 
for  up  to  July  4,  1905,  the  supply  of  water  was  drawn  from  the  cisterns  which 
were  allowed  to  fill  during  the  rainy  seasons,  or  from  wells,  and  afterward 
peddled  from  door  to  door  by  the  aguadores  or  water  cartmen.  When  the 
water  was  turned  on,  all  cisterns  were  closed.  Likewise  the  streets  which 
became  virtually  mud  holes  in  the  rainy  season  were  properly  paved  with  brick 
or  graded.     A  method  of  garbage  disposal  was  also  provided,  for  up  to  this  time 

[  SS  j 


CTHE,  TvAN-EL.  DIVIDED  -— g^H^^^O^^D,  IQ^ITED 


buzzards  were  the  only  scavengers.  Now,  the  streets  are  kept  swept  and  the 
garbage  is  collected  every  night  from  especially  designed  containers  which  every 
householder  is  supposed  to  have.  It  is  then  transported  to  low  swampy  places 
in  the  outskirts  of  the  cities  where  it  is  burned,  the  ashes  being  used  as  a  fill. 
In  the  Canal  Zone,  garbage  is  usually  destroyed  at  incinerating  plants.  In 
Panama  and  Colon  the  collection  is  made  by  the  health  department  of  the  Canal 
Commission.  All  the  street,  sewer  and  water  improvements  in  these  cities 
done  by  the  engineering  department  of  the  Canal  Commission  will  be  paid  for 
by  the  Republic  of  Panama  from  its  water  rates,  on  the  amortization  plan. 
The  money  advanced  by  the  United  States,  about  $3, 500, 000,  is  to  be  repaid  in 
50  years  from  July  1,  1907,  but  at  the  present  rate  of  payment,  settlement  will 
have  been  made  much  sooner. 

The  villages  in  the  Canal  Zone  along  the  line  of  the  Canal  were  not  so 
filthy  as  Panama  and  Colon,  but  were  without  sewer  and  water  systems.  Since 
then  several  reservoirs  have  been  constructed,  and  all  houses  are  connected  with 
sewer  systems.  Macadam  roads  have  gradually  replaced  trails;  garbage  is 
collected  daily  and  properly  disposed  of;  grass  and  other  tropic  vegetation  is 
kept  cut  down  in  the  vicinity  of  dwellings,  and  well-kept  gardens  and  hedges 
make  the  construction  villages  appear  like  model  towns.  Strict  sanitary 
regulations  are  enforced  in  all  the  Canal  Zone  towns,  as  well  as  in  the  cities  of 
Panama  and  Colon,  and  each  place  has  its  sanitary  inspectors,  or  inspector. 

RESULTS    HAVE    JUSTIFIED    THE    COST 

With  cleanliness  alone,  however,  the  high  sick  and  death  rate  could  not  be 
materiallv  reduced.     The  successful  war  on  the  mosquito,  which   was   started 


Along  the  coast  a  few  miles  from  Panama  City,  is  a  Leper  colony  of  24  persons,  called  Palo 
Seco.  This  is  the  colony  house  and  surroundings.  The  lepers  are  well  treated,  and  have  all  the 
creature  comforts  furnished  free  by  the  Government,  and  spend  a  part  of  their  time  growing  veg- 
etables for  their  own  consumption. 

[89  ] 


Jv\N-D    PIVIDED crrHB  WORLjD,  TTKITED 

by  Colonel  Gorgas  when  the  engineers  were  busy  constructing  water  works  and 
sewers,  has  freed  the  Isthmus  of  its  reputation  as  a  pest  hole,  and  has  made  its 
sick  and  mortality  rate  compare  favorably  with  cities  in  the  United  States,  or 
any  other  parts  of  the  civilized  world.  The  following  tables  indicate  the  effec- 
tiveness of  the  preventive  work  of  sanitation  on  the  Isthmus: 

Comparative  Statement  of  Death  Rates  Among  Canal  Employes  on 

the  Isthmus  of  Panama  Under  the  Original  French  Company 

for  1884,  the  Year  the  Maximum  Number  of  Employes 

were  Working,  and  the  American  Commission, 

1904  to  1912,  Inclusive. 


Total  for  nine  years. 


Year. 

Average  No.  of 
Employes. 

No.  of  Deaths, 
Disease  Only. 

Death  Rate  per 

1,000 
Disease  Only. 

Lives   Saved. 

1884 

17,436 

1,198 

68.69 

1904 

1905 

6,213 
16,512 

55 
412 
1,046 
964 
381 
356 
381 
374 
325 

8.84 

24.96 

39 .  40 

24.57 

8.68 

7.55 

7.50 

7.65 

6.37 

422 

722 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

26,547 
39,238 
43,891 
47,167 
50,802 
48,876 
50,893 

778 
1,731 
2,634 
2,884 
3,109 
2,983 
3,172 

18,435 


Total  Population  of  Panama,  Colon  and  Canal  Zone  and  Death 

Rates  in  Same. 


Total  for  nine  and  a  half  years 


Year. 

Population. 

Annual    Average 
Death  Rate  per  1000 

Lives  Saved. 

1904 

1905 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913  (June  30) 

35,000 
56,624 
73,264 
102,133 
120,097 
135,180 
151,591 
156,936 
146,510 
130,456 

52.45 
49.94 
49.10 
33.63 
24.83 
18.19 
21.18 
21.46 
20.49 
21.10* 

142 
299 
1,922 
3,317 
4,631 
4,740 
4,863 
4,682 
4,090 

28,686 


*Computerl  on  six  months'  figures,  but  averaged  for  a  year. 

Only  two  cases  of  bubonic  plague  have  developed  on  the  Isthmus  since 
American  occupation.     These  occurred   in   Balboa,   the  first   in   June,   1905. 


90 


CAMACHO  RESERVOIR 


LAS    SABANAS     ROAD 


tmrnm 


Panama,  Colon,  and  the  towns  in  the  Canal  Zone  were  without  water  mains  or  sewers  in  1904. 
Eight  reservoirs  have  been  built,  and  now  water  is  plentiful;  sewers  ramify  the  cities,  and  the  gar- 
bage is  collected  daily  and  burned.  Many  good  roads  have  also  been  built,  and  the  Las  Sabanas 
road  is  much  used  by  automobile  and  horseback  riders.  The  United  States  advanced  the  money 
for  this  work,  but  Panama  is  to  pay  it  back,  inside  of  50  years. 


9] 


CTHE,  Tv\N-D    DIVIDED-— ^^jE^J^Op^p^TINJTEI) 


On  the  Mount  Hope  Road  between  Cristobal  and  Gatun,  is  Mount  Hope  Cemetery,  once 
known  as  Monkey  Hill,  where  thousands  of  French  Canal  employes,  victims  of  yellow  fever,  lie 
buried.  Under  American  supervision  the  cemetery  has  been  greatly  beautified.  Each  of  its  aven- 
ues is  lined  with  a  different  kind  of  fruit  tree. 

The  village  was  immediately  cleaned  and  disinfected,  and  a  crusade  against 
rats,  the  fleas  of  which  are  the  carriers  of  buboinc,  was  started.  A  "rat" 
brigade  was  set  at  work  in  Panama;  rat  traps  were  issued  free  to  all  persons  who 
wished  them,  and  a  bounty  was  placed  on  each  rat  delivered  to  the  health 
department. 

In  addition  to  the  preventive  work  done  by  the  Department  of  Sanitation, 
it  maintains  two  large  hospitals,  one  at  Colon  and  the  other  at  Ancon,  and  each 
settlement  has  a  dispensary  with  a  physician  in  charge.  There  is  also  main- 
tained a  large  asylum  for  the  insane  at  Ancon,  while  at  Palo  Seco,  a  few  miles 
east  of  Panama,  there  is  an  asylum  for  lepers.  There  is  also  a  sanitarium  on 
Taboga  Island,  about  12  miles  out  in  the  Bay  of  Panama,  where  convalescent 
white  patients  are  given  a  week  or  more  to  renew  fever  and  work-worn  tissues. 

One  of  the  most  important  things  shown  by  the  success  of  sanitary  work  on 
the  Isthmus  has  been  expressed  by  Colonel  Gorgas  many  times,  as  follows: 
"Natives  in  the  tropics,  with  the  same  sanitary  precautions  that  are  taken  in  the 
temperate  zones,  can  be  just  as  healthy  and  have  just  as  small  a  death  rate  as 
inhabitants  in  the  temperate  zones.  To  bring  this  about  no  elaborate  ma- 
chinery is  necessary.  The  result  can  be  attained  by  any  community,  no  matter 
how  poor,  if  it  is  willing  to  spend  sufficient  labor  in  cleaning,  and  to  observe 
well-known  rules  with  regard  to  disease.  The  Anglo-Saxon  can  lead  just  as 
healthy  a  life,  and  live  just  as  long  in  the  tropics  as  he  can  in  his  native  climate." 

The  total  cost  of  the  work  of  the  Department  of  Sanitation  up  to  the  first 
of  July,  1913,  was  $16,250,164.93.  This  seems  to  be  an  excessive  cost  until  it  is 
considered  that  this  amount  includes  the  maintenance  of  modern  hospitals, 

[02  ] 


CTHE,  Tv\N-D    DIVIDED -^<q^HELJ^O^^D)_TIliJTED 

dispensaries,  and  quarantine  stations  at  Colon  and  Panama,  costing  more  than 
half  of  the  total  amount.  To  this  is  added  the  cost  of  street  cleaning  and 
garbage  collecting,  draining  and  reclaiming  swamp  land,  the  salaries  of  some 
15  chaplains,  the  care  of  cemeteries  and  the  carrying  on  of  a  general  under- 
taking and  embalming  business.  Colonel  Gorgas  when  he  said  that  it  is  within 
the  power  of  the  people  of  tropic  countries  to  be  just  as  healthy  as  those  in  the 
temperate  zones,  figures  the  actual  cost  of  sanitary  work  on  the  Isthmus  to  the 
American  Government  will  be  a  little  more  than  a  cent  a  day  per  capita,  based 
on  a  population  of  140,000. 

RIGID    QUARANTINE    MAINTAINED 

Since  May,  1904,  the  quarantine  on  the  Isthmus  has  been  under  American 
control  with  stations  at  Colon,  and  on  Culebra  Island  near  the  Pacific  entrance 
to  the  canah  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  ports  on  both  sides  of  the  Isthmus,  north 
and  south  of  Colon  and  Panama,  have  been  infected  with  bubonic  plague, 
cholera,  smallpox  and  yellow  fever,  the  quarantine  has  been  successfully  main- 
tained. All  employes  of  the  Commission  arriving  on  the  Isthmus  have  to 
submit  to  vaccination  unless  they  can  show  a  good  scar.  Ships  arriving  at  the 
Isthmus  from  infected  ports  are  required  to  fulfill  seven  days  of  quarantine  from 
the  time  of  their  departure.  Guayaquil,  Ecuador,  where  yellow  fever  has  been 
endemic  since  the  first  white  man  landed  on  the  west  coast  of  South  America, 
and  where  bubonic  plague  has  recently  gained  a  foothold,  is  about  four  days 
steaming  for  fast  ships.  As  ships  stopping  at  Guayaquil  load  and  unload  cargo 
where  they  are  in  danger  of  infection,  it  is  necessary  for  them  to  be  fumigated 
before  they  sail  for  Panama,  and  it  is  also  necessary  that  the  7-day  period  of 
quarantine  be  fulfilled  from  the  time  of  such  fumigation.  Ships  making  the 
trip  in  four  days  would,  therefore,  have  to  lay  in  quarantine  at  Culebra  Island 
fhree  days  before  they  could  unload  their  cargo  and  discharge  passengers  at 


Ancon  Cemetery. 
\  93  ] 


CTJIB   T^AN-P  .  piVIDED  —  CT1\^j 


TTKITED 


Taboga  Island,  12  miles  out  from  the  main  land,  in  Panama  Bay.  It  is  noted  for  its  sea  bathing, 
and  its  pineapples.  The  native  section  is  primitive  and  picturesque  and  contains  one  of  the  old- 
est churches  in  this  section. 

Balboa.  In  case  a  ship  arrives  which  cannot  show  a  certificate  that  all  regu- 
lations have  been  properly  complied  with  before  leaving  Guayaquil,  then  it  is 
necessary  that  the  vessel  be  fumigated  on  its  arrival  at  Panama,  and  pass  through 
the  7-day  detention  period  at  that  port.  On  the  Atlantic  side,  at  the  present 
time,  ships  sailing  from  La  Guaira,  Venezuela,  are  compelled  to  consume  seven 
days,  and  from  Santa  Marta,  Barranquilla,  and  Cartagena,  they  are  compelled 
to  consume  six  days  from  the  time  of  sailing.  With  a  rigid  quarantine  at  the 
two  ports  of  the  Canal,  and  with  the  effective  work  of  the  sanitary  inspectors 
kept  up  as  it  has  been  in  the  past,  it  seems  improbable  that  a  serious  epidemic 
of  yellow  fever  will  ever  break  out  on  the  Isthmus  again. 


The  Canal  Commission's  Sanitarium  on  Taboga  Island,  where  all  sick  white  employes  are 
sent  to  convalesce.  The  employes  are  given  30  days  vacation  each  year,  with  full  pay,  and  30 
days  sick  leave  each  year,  when  necessary. 

r  04 1 


1911— December  .  .  . 37,826 

1912— November 40,159 

1913— March 44,733 


N  the  month  of  September,  1904,  the  Canal  force  was  at  its  lowest 
point,  numbering  about  500.     In  November,  1905,  the  force  had  been 
increased  to  approximately  17,000,  and  in  November,  1906,  it  was 
practically  the  same.     The  following  tables  show  the  highest  monthly 
record  for  each  year  since  1906: 

1907— October 31,967 

1908— April 33,170 

1909— October 35,405 

1910— March 38,676 

The  Canal  force  reached  its  highest  point  in  March,  1913,  with  44,733  men, 
divided  as  follows:  Panama  railroad,  5,248;  Panama  railroad  commissary, 
1,274;  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  32,567;  contractors,  5,644;  total,  44,733. 

Of  the  above,  the  "gold"  force,  composed  almost  entirely  of  Americans, 
numbered  4,487;  West  Indian  laborers  employed  by  the  Commission,  10,406; 
West  Indian  artisans  employed  by  the  Commission,  13,065;  European  laborers 
employed  by  the  Commission,  4,609.  The  balance  was  in  the  employ  of  the 
Panama  railroad  and  of  the  contractors.  Most  of  the  West  Indian  laborers 
received  10  and  13  cents  an  hour,  while  a  few  received  as  high  as  20  cents 
an  hour.  The  European  laborers  received  16  and  20  cents  an  hour.  The 
West  Indian  artisans  were  for  the  greater  part  paid  on  a  monthly  basis,  the 
balance  receiving  from  16  to  44  cents  an  hour. 

GETTING    THE    FORCE    TOGETHER 

As  the  work  of  making  the  Isthmus  a  healthful  place  in  which  to  live 
progressed  and  better  living  conditions  were  inaugurated,  the  work  of  recruiting 
and  maintaining  a  labor  force  became  easier.  However,  it  was  never  possible 
to  keep  a  stable  force  and,  under  the  best  conditions,  the  American  force  changed 

[  ^r>  ] 


The  old  French  Administration  Building  in  Panama  City,  used  by  the  American  engineers  as  their 
office  headquarters  during  the  first  two  years  of  Canal  construction. 


The  Administration  Building  at  Culebra,  the  present  engineering  headquarters,  containing  the 
office  of  Colonel  Goethals.  The  headquarters  will  be  changed  to  Balboa  as  soon  as  the  new  ad- 
ministration building,  which  is  now  being  erected  there,  is  completed. 


[  96  J 


CTHE,  Jv\N-P    DIVIDED— ctthe:  WOGLkD>  TTKITED 

considerably,  the  skilled  mechanics  about  80  per  cent,  during  the  year  1910, 
and  that  of  the  administrative  employes  about  45  per  cent.  During  the  early 
years,  recruiting  offices  were  opened  in  Europe,  the  West  Indies  and  in  the 
United  States,  and  men  representing  nearly  every  nationality  were  brought  to 
the  Isthmus  under  contract  with  the  Commission.  Nearly  all  the  supervisory 
positions,  and  the  positions  requiring  skilled  labor,  are  filled  by  Americans. 
These  include  the  mechanics,  carpenters,  plumbers,  steam  shovel  engineers 
and  cranemen,  locomotive  engineers,  railroad  conductors,  firemen,  policemen, 
civil  engineers,  clerks,  doctors,  nurses,  school  teachers,  etc.  The  clerical  force, 
draftsmen,  doctors  and  nurses  are  included  in  the  classified  civil  service,  but  all 
other  positions  are  excepted  from  civil  service  requirements.  The  common 
and  unskilled  laborers  represent  nearly  every  nationality.     The  greater  part, 


Colonel  Goethal's  motor  car,  commonly  known  as  the  "Yellow  Peril"  from  its  color;  also  as 
the  "Brain  Wagon."  Several  of  these  cars  have  been  shipped  to  the  Isthmus,  and  are  used  by  the 
officials  in  inspecting  the  different  parts  of  the  work. 

however,  are  negroes  from  the  West  Indies;  the  Spaniards,  Italians  and  Greeks 
form  the  greater  part  of  the  European  labor  force. 

During  the  years  1906-7-8,  there  were  recruited  in  Europe  11,300  laborers, 
8,200  of  which  were  Spaniards,  2,000  Italians  and  1,100  Greeks.  These  men 
were  obtained  under  contract,  and  were  promised  free  quarters  and  employ- 
ment at  20  cents  an  hour  for  as  long  as  the  canal  work  should  last.  Their 
passage  money  was  advanced  to  them,  and  was  deducted  from  their  monthly 
pay,  so  that  out  of  a  total  cost  of  $508,770.83  for  recruiting  Europeans,  all  but 
$100,000  was  returned  from  the  laborers'  wages.  Recruiting  ceased  in  Europe 
in  1908,  as  the  supply  of  labor  became  constant  through  the  arrival  of  those  on 
the  Isthmus  who,  having  learned  of  the  favorable  working  conditions,  came 
seeking  employment  of  their  own  volition.     Those  who  did  not  come  under 


The  Administration  Building  at  Ancon,  containing  various  offices,  including  those  of  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Commission,  and  the  heads  of  the  Departments  of  Civil  Administration,  Sanitation 
and  Law. 


The  Division  Engineer's  office  at  Gatun.  Gatun  is  the  engineering  headquarters  for  the  At- 
lantic Division,  which  embraces  the  construction  from  deep  water  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  to  in- 
clude the  Gatun  Locks  and  Dam. 

I  98  J 


CpHB  TvANP    DIVIDED-—  CTVlEj  WOgJkD,  TTKITED 

contract  were  paid  16  cents  an  hour  for  three  months,  and  were  then  raised  to 
20  cents  an  hour  if  their  work  had  been  satisfactory.  Laborers  obtained  under 
contract  will  be  repatriated  at  the  expense  of  the  Commission,  but  their  number 
will  not  be  large  as,  undoubtedly,  many  of  them  will  find  work  elsewhere. 

The  recruiting  of  laborers  in  the  West  Indies  was  carried  on  several  years 
after  it  had  ceased  in  Europe,  the  last  importation  of  negroes  from  Barbados 
having  taken  place  in  January  and  February  of  1913.  The  total  number  of 
West  Indians  recruited  reached  30,619  at  the  end  of  1912.  Of  this  total,  19,444 
were  brought  from  Barbados,  5,542  from  Martinique,  2,053  from  Guadeloupe, 
1,427  from  Trinidad,  and  the  balance  distributed  among  the  other  islands  of 
the  West  Indies.  Recruiting  of  laborers  was  not  allowed  in  Jamaica  after 
1905,  in  which  year  47  had  been  brought  to  the  Isthmus  under  contract.     Al- 


Colonel  Goethals"  residence  at  Culebra. 

though  this  class  of  laborer  was  not  recruited,  he  was  well  represented  on  the 
Isthmus  in  the  labor  force,  for  the  Jamaican  came  of  his  own  volition  although 
he  was  required  to  deposit  the  amount  of  his  return  fare  before  he  could  leave 
that  island.  In  October,  1913,  about  10,000  West  Indians  were  laid  off  as 
the  dry  excavation  in  Culebra  Cut  came  to  an  end.  About  5,000  of  these  men 
went  into  the  employ  of  the  United  Fruit  Company,  and  the  balance,  unable 
to  find  work  elsewhere,  mostly  went  back  to  their  island  homes. 

KEEPING    THE    AMERICAN    EMPLOYES    CONTENTED 

In  addition  to  much  higher  wages  than  those  prevailing  in  the  United 
States,  many  inducements  were  offered  to  persuade  Americans  to  go  to  the 
Isthmus  to  hll  the  supervisory  positions.  Free  quarters,  free  medical,  surgical, 
and  hospital  attendance,  and  six  weeks'  annual  leave  of  absence  with  pay  are 

[  no  1 


The  Y.  M.  C.  A.  Clubhouse  at  Gatun.  The  Government  early  discovered  that  to  keep  the 
employes  contented,  they  must  be  given  amusement;  accordingly  seven  clubhouses  were  erected 
which  are  now  self-sustaining.  They  are  conducted  under  the  auspices  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  but 
along  broader  lines  than  elsewhere.  They  furnish  attractive  places  for  the  men  to  congregate, 
and  the  social  work  consists  of  entertainments  brought  from  the  States,  as  well  as  local  dramatic, 
musical,  minstrel  and  vaudeville  productions. 

[  ioo  1 


J>AM-D    piVIDED  > q^B  WORXjB,  TTKITED 

provided.  Free  transportation  is  also  furnished  new  employes  from  the  United 
States  and  also  on  their  return  after  having  completed  two  years  of  satisfactory 
service  on  the  Isthmus.  On  their  vacation  leave,  the  employes  are  granted  a 
reduced  rate  on  the  various  steamship  lines  running  between  the  Isthmus  and 
the  United  States.  On  the  Panama  railroad  steamships  the  employes'  rate  is 
$20  one  way  for  those  appointed  prior  to  January  1,  1909;  for  employes  ap- 
pointed after  that  date,  the  rate  is  $30;  the  regular  rate  is  from  $75  to  $90  from 
Colon  to  New  York. 

The  problem  of  maintaining  a  constant  force  of  Americans  was  not  solved, 
however,  until  means  were  found  to  keep  it  as  nearly  contented  as  possible. 
To  do  this,  it  was  thought  necessary  to  encourage  employes  to  bring  their 


Owing  to  the  necessity  of  building  on  the  side  of  the  hill  at  Ancon,  many  steps  are  required 
at  some  of  the  quarters,  as  shown  in  the  above  picture.  Usually  more  level  sites  were  utilized  for 
quarters.     The  houses,  with  the  surrounding  shrubbery,  make  a  beautiful  scene. 

families  to  the  Isthmus,  and  to  this  entl,  furnished  family  quarters  were  pro- 
vided, with  free  fuel,  water,  and  light.  It  is  generally  agreed  that  the  com- 
fortable married  quarters  supplied  by  the  Canal  Commission  has  led  a  good 
many  to  forsake  the  state  of  single  blessedness,  but  nearly  all  are  wise  enough 
to  wait  for  an  assignment  before  "popping  the  question."  The  demand  for 
family  quarters  has  always  been  greater  than  the  supply,  and  one  has  to  take 
his  turn  on  the  waiting  list.  If  he  is  an  old-timer  and  has  not  been  out  of  the 
service  since  1908,  he  is  on  what  is  known  as  the  No.  1  list,  and  stands  a  fair 
show  of  getting  quarters  quickly.  One  who  has  been  employed  since  1908  goes 
on  the  No.  2  list,  and  there  is  generally  several  months'  weary  wait  before  his 
turn  comes,  as  the  total  number  of  applicants  up  to  the  latter  part  of  1913  had 
been  rarely  less  than  600.     Some  insist  on  bringing  their  families  anyway,  in 

[  ioi  ] 


cmB   TvANP    DIVIDED -^C^IFiE 


TTNJTED 


Canal  medal  awarded  white  employes  on  the  "Gold  Roll"  for  long  service.  The  medal  is  for 
two  years'  continuous  service,  and  for  each  additional  two  years  a  bar  is  earned.  The  idea  was 
suggested  by  ex-President  Roosevelt  during  his  visit  to  the  Isthmus  in  1906. 

which  case,  they  are  compelled  to  rent  outside  rooms,  which  are  expensive  and 
in  no  way  compare  with  the  comfortable  Commission  quarters. 

Family  quarters  are  graded  according  to  the  size  of  an  employe's  salary, 
so  much  floor  space  to  each  $100  he  earns,  or  fraction  thereof.  Employes 
receiving-  $200,  or  over,  are  assigned,  where  possible,  to  one-family  houses; 
those  receiving  less  are  quartered  in  two  and  four-family  houses.  The  quarters, 
both  family  and  bachelor,  include  a  number  of  different  types  designated  as  Type 
17,  or  Type  18,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  were  built  from  special  designs  to  make 
them  suitable  for  residence  in  the  tropics.  The  rooms  are  uniformly  well 
ventilated,  and  there  is  plenty  of  veranda  space.  Chairs,  tables,  beds,  cook 
stove,  refrigerator,  bureau,  chiffonier,  sideboard,  mattresses,  mats,  etc.,  are 
supplied  free;  bed  linen  and  kitchen  utensils  must  be  obtained  by  the  occupant. 

The  bachelor  employe  has  always  contended,  and  possibly  with  some 
grounds,  that  he  has  been  shown  less  consideration  than  the  married  employe. 


The  Nurses  have  this  building  to  themselves,  called  the  Nurses'  Home,  at  Ancon  Hospital. 

\  102  1 


Each  Zone  settlement  has  buildings  for  bachelors  commensurate  with  the  force  quartered 
there,  furnished  free  by  the  Government.  This  type  of  quarters  contains  24  rooms,  with  two 
men  assigned  to  each. 


Frankly,  the  bachelor  employe  does  not  have  the  privileges  his  married  friend  has,  still  he 
manages  to  get  along  pretty  well,  as  evidenced  by  the  interior  of  his  quarters. 

r  103 1 


CTftE,  Tv\ND    piVIDED  ^CTHB  WORL>D>  TTKITED 


In  most  cases,  he  must  share  his  room  with  another,  and  there  has  been  times, 
when  three  were  placed  in  one  small  room.  On  the  other  hand,  although  he 
probably  will  not  admit  it,  the  bachelor  employe  has  been  greatly  benefited  by 
the  presence  of  women  and  children  in  the  various  construction  camps. 

It  has  been  figured  that  bachelor  labor  costs  less  than  that  of  married  labor, 
taking  into  consideration  the  quarters  assigned,  allowance  for  fuel,  light,  water, 
care  of  grounds,  and  janitor  service.     A  comparison  follows: 


PLANT 

Married 

Quarters      $1,800.00 

Furniture 140.00 


Total    $1,940.00 

MONTHLY    COST    OF    ALLOWANCES 

Fuel  (coal  and  kindling) $4 .  30 

Light    4.20 

Water 1.80 

Distilled    Water .50 

Care  of  grounds,  removal  of  garbage 1.20 

Janitor  service .... 

Total    $12.00 


Single 
$500 . 00 
25.00 

$525 . 00 


.30 
.45 
.10 
.15 
1.25 

"$2.25 


Assuming  a  six  years'  service,  a  married  man  may  be  said  to  represent  an 
expenditure  of  $3,000,  and  a  single  employe  $750.     In  addition  to  the  above, 

the  married  man  also  receives  the 
benefit  for  his  children  of  an  excellent 
school  system.  This  increased  cost, 
however,  is  supposed  to  be  offset  by  the 
stability  of  the  married  force. 

The  visitor  to  the  Isthmus  is  quick  to 
note  that  he  is  in  a  new  atmosphere. 
The  bringing  together  of  people  from 
every  part  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
consequent  interchange  of  ideas  has 
given  birth  to  a  spirit  of  tolerance,  of 
a  broadening  of  the  mind,  and  has  led 
to  the  abandonment  in  a  large  measure 
of  narrow-minded  prejudices  embodied 
in  the  selfish  thought  that  "My  way  is 
right,  yours  is  bound  to  be  wrong,"  a 
rut  that  people  in  small  communities 
in  the  States  are  so  prone  to  fall  into. 

To  further  the  feeling  of  contentment 
and  to  make  of  the  Canal  Zone  a 
transplanted  American  community, 
churches  and  schools  were  organized. 
Church  work  was  authorized  by  the 
Commission  on  October  4,  1905.  There 
are  about  40  church  buildings  in  the 


Members  of  the  Ancon  Study  Club. 


[   104  ] 


A  Cozy  Home  in  the  Canal  Zone.  Married  quarters  are  furnished  free  by  the  Government, 
and  fuel,  light  and  water  supplied  without  charge.  Assignments  for  quarters  are  made  by  the  dis- 
trict quartermaster,  based  on  date  of  application,  rate  of  salary,  and  date  of  entry  in  the  service. 


[  105  1 


,K   J)AN-D    piVIDED  — —  CTTMSj  WQRDD>  TTKITED 


Zone,  representing  nearly  every  Christian  denomination.  The  greater  part 
of  these  churches  are  owned  by  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  which  has 
in  its  employ  ten  chaplains,  representing  six  different  denominations.  It  has 
been  the  policy  of  the  Commission  to  encourage  church  work,  and  it  granted 
land  and  sold  building  material  at  cost  for  church  buildings.  Religious  ser- 
vices are  also  held  in  the  Commission  club-houses  and  lodge  halls. 

There  are  six  Commission  clubhouses,  one  each  at  Corozal,  Culebra, 
Empire,  Cristobal,  Gatun,  and  Porto  Bello.  The  one  which  was  at  Gorgona 
will  be  re-erected  at  Pedro  Miguel,  and  a  clubhouse  of  a  permanent  type  is 
proposed  for  the  new  town  of  Balboa.  These  clubhouses  were  constructed 
and  equipped  by  the  Commission  and  are  conducted  by  trained  secretaries 
appointee!  by  the  International  Committee  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.     The  work  was 


>- 


Mealtime  at  a  Government  kitchen  for  negro  laborers.    The  negroes  are  served  three 
rations  a  day  at  a  total  cost  of  27  cents. 

planned  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  men  morally,  educationally,  and  physically, 
and  to  this  end  reading  rooms,  bowling,  pool  and  billiard  rooms,  gymnasium 
classes,  educational  classes,  chess,  checker,  dramatic  clubs,  etc.,  are  main- 
tained by  them.  All  white  employes  are  eligible  to  membership  upon  the 
payment  of  the  regular  membership  dues  of  $10  per  annum. 

The  desire  for  music  was  also  recognized  by  the  Commission  and  until 
March  1,  1913,  it  maintained  a  first-class  band  of  35  pieces.  The  members 
were  all  employes,  and  they  received  additional  pay  for  their  services.  The 
band  was  first  organized  in  September,  1905,  as  a  private  organization,  and  the 
Commission  took  over  its  maintenance  on  March  27,  1907.  Concerts  were 
given  weekly  in  the  different  towns  in  the  Canal  Zone. 

Nearly  every  construction  village  in  the  Zone  has  a  Commission  building 
which  is  devoted  to  the  use  of  fraternal  organizations,  and  a  dozen  secret 
organizations,  as  well  as  labor  organizations,  are  represented  on  the  Isthmus. 

[  106  | 


Typical  camp  for  European  laborers.     There  are  separate  camps  for  each  class  of  employes, 
and  the  American  section  of  a  Canal  Zone  town  is  entirely  by  itself. 


■%*»* 


>„ 


JHftPI 


Interior  of  a  bunk  house  for  negro  laborers.     The  men  sleep  on  Standee  berths, 
arranged  in  parallel  rows,  in  three  tiers. 


CTMB   TiAN-P  .  DIVIDED ^THE  WO^D^UJ^TTED 

The  lodge  halls  are  assigned  free  of  charge  for  weekly  meetings,  and  are  also 
used  for  entertainments,  club  meetings,  and  dances.  The  Commission  has 
encouraged  baseball,  tennis,  rifle,  and  pistol  clubs.  A  dancing  club  holds 
fortnightly  balls  in  the  Hotel  Tivoli  at  which  Isthmian  society  is  seen  at  its 
best.  This  social  organization  recently  passed  through  a  crisis  over  the 
question  of  "turkey-trotting"  and  kindred  dances.  In  addition  to  the  many 
clubs  in  the  Canal  Zone  which  are  more  or  less  under  the  sway  of  the  Com- 
mission, the  employes  wishing  a  little  more  freedom  founded  the  Strangers'  Club 
in  Colon,  and  the  University  Club  in  Panama.  These  two  clubs  do  not  confine 
their  membership  to  Commission   employes.     The    "smokers"   and    "hops" 


Mess  hall  for  European  laborers.     Three  rations  are  served  European  silver 
employes  for  40  cents  a  day. 

given  by  these  two  clubs  are  popular  both  in  the  Canal  Zone  and  in  the  cities 
in  which  they  are  located. 

Following  up  its  policy  of  encouraging  employes  to  bring  their  families  to 
the  Isthmus,  Ex-president  Taft  authorized  the  employment  by  the  Commission 
of  Miss  Helen  Varick  Boswell  to  undertake  the  task  of  starting  a  social  move- 
ment among  the  women  in  the  Canal  Zone.  Miss  Boswell  arrived  early  in 
September,  1907,  and  when  she  left  in  October,  she  had  organized  nine  women's 
clubs  in  the  larger  villages.  The  purpose  of  these  clubs  was  to  provide  recrea- 
tion and  social  intercourse  for  the  wives  and  daughters  of  the  American  em- 
ployes, just  as  the  clubhouses  were  established  as  centers  of  recreation  for  the 
men.  These  nine  clubs  were  finally  affiliated  with  the  General  Federation  of 
Women's  Clubs  in  the  United  States.  On  April  19,  1913,  the  Canal  Zone 
Federation  completed  six  years  of  activity,  and  on  that  date  it  disbanded  on 
account  of  the  approaching  completion  of  the  Canal  work. 

Several  societies,  designed  to  perpetuate  the  canal  work,  have  been  organ- 
ized.    The  first  one  of  these,  the  Society  of  the  Incas,  limits  its  membership  to 

\  108  ] 


Lodge  hall  at  Las  Cascadas.  All  the  leading  secret  societies  are  represented  in  the  Canal  Zone, 
and  lodge  halls  have  been  erected  for  their  use  by  the  Government.  No  rental  is  exacted.  The 
Zone  has  also  a  federation  of  women's  clubs. 


Reading  room  in  the  University  Club,  Panama  City.     The  University  Club  and  the  Strangers' 
Club  in  Colon,  do  not  confine  their  membership  to  Government  employes. 

I   109  1 


CTHE,  TvAN-D    DIVIDED GTJ\&  WOI3LkD,  TTKITED 

employes  who  entered  the  service  in  the  year  1904.  Another  is  called  the 
Society  of  the  Chagres,  and  is  composed  of  men  who  have  seen  six  years  of 
service.  A  third  society  has  recently  been  organized,  known  as  the  Association 
of  Panama  Canal  Builders,  to  which  any  gold  employe  may  belong. 


A  lunch  hour  scene  at  Gorgona  shops,  before  they  were  destroyed  to  avoid 
inundation  by  the  rise  of  Gatun  lake. 

All  gold  employes  who  have  served  two  years  under  the  Canal  Commission 
arc  entitled  to  a  medal.  This  souvenir  is  the  outcome  of  the  thoughtfulness 
of  ex-President  Roosevelt,  who,  just  before  he  sailed  from  the  Isthmus  on 
November  17,  1906,  said:  "I  shall  see  if  it  is  not  possible  to  provide  for  some 
little  memorial,  some  mark,  some  badge,  which  will  always  distinguish  the 
man  who,  for  a  certain  space  of  time,  has  done  his  work  well  on  the  Isthmus, 
just  as  the  button  of  the  Grand  Army  distinguishes  the  man  who  did  his  work 
well  in  the  Civil  War."  The  medal  is  of  bronze,  one  and  one-half  inches  in 
diameter,  and  is  made  from  brass,  copper,  and  tin  taken  from  old  French 
scrap.     On  the  reverse  side  is  a  bust  portrait  of  ex-president  Roosevelt,  with 


Labor  train  arriving  at  dry  dock,  Cristobal.     A  great  many  employes  live  at  a  distance 
from  their  work,  and  are  transported  to  and  from  their  homes  in  labor  trains. 

[110] 


CTHB   Tv\NP  .  DIVIDED  -^CTHB  \VrORljg^NjTED 

space  underneath  for  the  service  record,  and  around  the  rim  the  words  "For 
two  years'  continuous  service  on  the  Panama  Canal."  On  the  obverse  is  a 
picture  of  Culebra  Cut  with  ships  passing  through,  the  Seal  of  the  Canal  Zone, 
a  name  plate,  and  the  words  "presented  by  the  President  of  the  United  States," 


Interior  of  Mount  Hope  printing  plant.     The  majority  of  the  Canal  Commission's  printing, 
including  The  Canal  Record,  is  done  here. 

cut  into  the  rim.  A  bar  is  awarded  for  each  two  years'  additional  service,  and 
there  are  employes  who  have  earned  not  only  the  medal,  but  three  bars  as  well. 
The  medals  are  made  at  the  Philadelphia  mint,  and  are  distributed  yearly. 
No    duplicates    are    issued. 

The  Canal  Record,  published  weekly  under  the  supervision  of  the  Canal 
Commission,  contains  a  resume  of  the  progress  of  canal  work,  official  circulars, 
social  and  church  notes,  etc.  It  is  distributed  free  to  all  gold  employes  of  the 
Commission  and  the  Panama  railroad;  in  fact,  so  widely  has  it  become  known 
that  its  circulation,  between  16,000  and  17,000  weekly,  extends  to  people  inter- 


General  storehouse  at  Mount  Hope,  near  Colon,  from  which  supplies  are  drawn  by  smaller 
store  houses  established  in  all  the  principal  Canal  Zone  settlements.  A  large  amount  of  material 
is  required  to  be  kept  constantly  on  hand. 

[    IN     I 


'.*>V, 


The  Hotel  Tivoli  at  Ancon,  a  picture  familiar  to  anyone  who  has  been  on  the  Isthmus.  It  is 
the  principal  stopping  place  for  tourists,  and  is  owned  and  managed  by  the  United  States 
Government. 


Lobby  of  the  Hotel  Tivoli.     One  of  the  hotel's  first  guests  was  ex-President  Roosevelt,  and 
the  suite  he  occupied  is  known  as  the  President's  suite. 

[112] 


CTTIB  Tv\NP  .  DIVIDED cn\&  WORUD,  TTKITED 

ested  in  the  construction  of  the  canal  in  all  parts  of  the  globe.  It  is  printed  at 
the  Canal  Commission's  printing  plant  at  Mount  Hope,  and  is  under  the 
direction  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Commission,  Mr.  Joseph  Bucklin  Bishop. 

FEEDING  AND  CLOTHING  THE  CANAL  ARMY 

It  is  estimated  that  with  employes  and  their  dependents  there  were  about 
65,000  persons  depending  upon  the  Canal  and  Panama  railroad  work  for  their 
source  of  income  during  the  height  of  activity,  and  these  people  had  to  be  supplied 
daily  with  food,  clothing  and  other  necessaries.  It  was  early  realized  that  the 
demand  for  food  and  clothing  could  not  be  satisfactorily  filled  from  local  sources, 
for  prices  advanced  steadily  as  the  demand  increased,  so  the  Subsistence  Depart- 
ment was  created.     This  department  is  divided  into  two  branches,  commissary 


Commissary  at  Cristobal,  oldest  and  largest  on  the  Isthmus.  This  was  operated  by  the  Pan- 
ama railroad  for  the  benefit  of  its  employes  before  the  United  States  acquired  the  road.  A  com- 
missary train  makes  an  early  morning  daily  run  across  the  Isthmus  distributing  supplies  to  the 
branch  commissaries. 

and  hotel.  The  first  commissary  store  was  at  Colon  and  was  maintained  by 
the  Panama  Railroad  Company  for  the  benefit  of  its  employes.  The  com- 
missary division  does  a  general  merchandising  business,  while  the  subsistence 
end  has  in  charge  the  hotels  or  mess  halls  for  the  American  employes  and  messes 
for  the  laborers.  It  also  maintains  the  Hotel  Tivoli  at  Ancon,  patronized 
chiefly  by  transients.  About  85  per  cent,  of  the  supplies  for  the  commissary 
and  subsistence  departments  are  purchased  in  the  United  States,  10  per  cent, 
in  Europe,  and  five  per  cent,  in  Panama. 

In  addition  to  the  store  at  Cristobal  each  canal  village  has  a  branch  com- 
missary. Everything  that  an  employe  or  his  family  usually  requires,  such  as 
household  goods,  men's  and  women's  clothing,  groceries,  meats,  vegetables  and 
fruits  arc  supplied.   In  addition  to  the  retail  stores,  cold  storage,  ice  making,  coffee 

[  113] 


Public  market  at  Culebra.     These  markets  are  located  in  many  of  the  Zone  towns,  where 
the  tropical  fruits  and  vegetables  may  be  obtained. 


Ice  and  cold  storage  plant,  Cristobal.  Ice  is  sold  at  40  cents  per  100  pounds,  and  cold  storage 
articles  are  cheaper,  in  many  instances,  than  they  are  in  this  country  from  which  they  are  im- 
ported. This  is  largely  due  to  the  system  of  buying  in  bulk  and,  in  the  case  of  meats,  to  the 
placing  of  contracts. 

[   H4  ] 


CTftE,  TvAN-P  .  DIVIDED CT~HB  WOGLkD,  T1KITED 

roasting,  ice  cream  and  laundry  plants,  and  a  bakery  are  operated  at  Cristobal. 
From  this  point  a  supply  train,  partly  composed  of  refrigerator  cars,  crosses 
the  Isthmus  each  morning,  stopping  at  the  different  stations  along  the  line 
where  ice,  meats,  and  other  perishable  articles  are  delivered.  These  goods  are 
then  distributed  to  the  houses  of  employes  and  to  the  mess  halls  and  branch 
commissaries  by  the  Quartermaster's  Department.  No  cash  sales  are  made, 
all  payments  being  made  by  the  employes  in  the  form  of  coupons  ranging  in 
value  from  one  cent  to  25  cents  from  books  issued  ranging  in  value  from  $2.50 
to  $15.  The  same  method  of  payment  is  used  in  the  hotels.  These  books  are 
obtained  by  the  employes  for  cash  at  stated  places,  or  are  supplied  by  the  time- 
keepers, and  the  amount  deducted  from  the  employes'  salary  at  the  end  of  the 
month.     They  are  not  transferable,  and  in  order  that  the  privilege  will  not  be 


The  Government  hotel  at  Corozal,  the  first  one  erected  by  the  Americans.  These  Govern- 
ment hotels  are  established  in  all  of  the  Zone  settlements.  In  them  a  white  employe  is  served  a  bet- 
ter meal  for  30  cents  than  he  can  usually  procure  for  that  price  in  this  country.  In  one  part  of  the 
dining  room,  employes  are  permitted  to  eat  without  their  coats;  in  the  other  they  must  keep 
them  on. 

abused,  infractions  of  this  rule  is  punishable  by  confiscation  of  the  book  and 
ten  days'  suspension  for  the  first  offense,  and  discharge  for  a  second  offense. 

Due  to  the  fact  that  the  commissaries  are  not  run  for  a  profit,  except  to 
cover  in  the  cost  of  the  various  plants,  improvements,  etc.,  and  to  the  fact  that 
the  Government  buys  in  large  quantities  under  favorable  contracts,  the  con- 
sumers on  the  Isthmus  have  not  felt  the  high  cost  of  living  to  the  extent  of  people 
elsewhere.  This  is  especially  true  of  beef,  the  price  of  which  during  19 12 
reached  a  point  never  before  equalled  in  the  United  States.  Witli  but  a  few 
exceptions,  the  price  of  beef  at  the  commissaries  during  this  period  was  kept 
down  to  the  previous  price.     During  a  single  year,  0,453, 138  pounds  of  fresh 

f   H5  1 


The  Commission  laundry  at  Cristobal.     It  is  equipped  with  up-to-date  machinery  and 
presents  a  busy  appearance  at  all  times. 


The  Commission  bakery  at  Cristobal.  During  a  single  year  the  bakery  used  20,233  barrels  of 
flour,  producing  6,014,667  loaves  of  bread,  651,844  rolls  and  114,134  pounds  of  cake.  Each  loaf  of 
bread  weighs  16  ounces  and  costs  the  consumer  three  cents. 


[   H6  ] 


CTKB  J^AND    DIVIDED cn^j&JWQJ3JyP>  TTNJTED 

meat  and  976,445  pounds  of  cured  and  pickled  meats  were  brought  to  the 
Isthmus. 

By  printing  333,658  pounds  of  a  total  of  427,683  pounds  of  butter  bought, 
the  commissary  was  able  to  save  in  the  price  and  also  present  it  for  sale  in  a 
much  better  condition  than  when  purchased  in  the  United  States  already 
printed.  The  price  of  coffee  was  also  saved  by  the  commissary  operating  its 
own  roasting  plant.  In  this  plant  341,780  pounds  of  green  coffee,  producing 
280,909  pounds  of  roasted  coffee  have  been  turned  out  in  a  year.  The  ice  plant, 
with  a  capacity  of  100  tons  a  day,  delivers  ice  for  40  cents  a  hundredweight,  or 
20  pounds  of  ice  delivered  at  the  employes'  door  for  eight  cents.  Another 
instance  of  effective  manufacture  and  distribution  was  the  operation  of  the 
bakery  which  during  a  single  year  used  20,233  barrels  of  flour  producing  6,014,- 


The  principal  street  in  Gorgona.     This  was  one  of  the  largest  towns  in  the  Canal  Zone,  but  the 
buildings  have  all  been  removed  as  the  waters  of  Gatun  Lake  will  cover  the  original  site. 

667  loaves  of  bread,  6.51,844  rolls,  and  114,134  pounds  of  cake.  Each  loaf 
of  bread  weighs  16  ounces  and  costs  the  consumer  three  cents.  In  addition, 
the  bakery  enables  the  employe  to  purchase  strictly  fresh  bread,  cakes  and  rolls 
which  he  would  otherwise  not  be  able  to  obtain.  The  Americans  on  the  Zone 
are  great  ice  cream  eaters,  for  a  total  of  138,551  gallons  valued  at  $110,993.68 
were  consumed  in  a  single  year.  The  ice  cream  which  is  sold  for  25  cents  a 
quart  is  as  good  as  can  be  obtained,  fresh  milk  and  cream  being  imported  from 
the  United  States,  in  refrigeration,  for  its  manufacture. 

In  the  industrial  and  experimental  laboratory  maintained  by  the  com- 
missary, extracts,  talcum  powder,  soap,  witch  hazel,  hydrogen  peroxide,  bay 
rum,  tooth  powder,  and  toilet  preparations  of  various  kinds  are  manufactured 
ami  sold  to  the  employes  at  a  considerable  saving  in  cost.     The  experimental 

[   H7  ] 


Tennis  court,  Ancon.     Tennis  is  a  favorite  pastime  and  tournaments  are  held  frequently. 


Opening  game  Athletic  Park,  Empire.     The  national  game  has  held  sway  each  dry  season  with 
at  least  one  league  made  up  of  four  or  more  clubs.     Field  meets  are  also  held  occasionally. 


There  are  several  excellent  bathing  places  on  each  side  of  the  Isthmus.  A  large  pavilion  has 
recently  been  erected  fronting  the  beach  Pena  Prieta,  Panama  Bay,  to  which  the  street  cars  run. 
Sea  bathing  is  enjoyed  at  'Xmas  time  the  same  as  on  the  Fourth  of  July. 


I  IS 


Jv\ND    piVIDED G\-l\&  WQEa^>-TIK?TgP 

department  is  maintained  to  insure  the  quality  of  all  the  goods  sold  in  the 
stores. 

There  are  three  classes  of  hotels  and  messes  maintained  where  the  labor 
force  is  fed,  one  for  the  white  American  employes  where  meals  are  served  at 
30  cents  each,  one  in  which  Spanish  laborers  are  served  three  meals  for  40  cents, 
and  one  where  negro  laborers  are  served  three  meals  for  27  cents.  The  food 
in  all  three  cases  is  good  and  wholesome.  The  meals  served  in  the  American 
hotels,  or  mess  halls,  are  substantial  rather  than  dainty,  but  could  hardly  be 
duplicated  in  the  United  States  for  double  the  price  charged.  Although  the 
laborers'  messes  serve  wholesome  food  very  cheaply,  the  greater  part  of  the 
Spaniards  prefer  to  eat  at  the  little  restaurants  maintained  near  the  construction 
camps  by  their  fellow  countrymen.     The  same  has  been  true  of  the  negroes 


IBiHlBBHHHB!l 


The  residence  section  at  Gatun.     The  three  great  twin  locks  near  the  Atlantic 
entrance  of  the  Canal  are  located  here. 


who  had  much  rather  live  in  the  "bush"  or  in  the  cities  of  Panama  and  Colon 
where  they  are  less  restricted. 

During  a  single  year  the  total  number  of  meals  served  in  the  hotels  was 
2,075,335;  the  total  number  of  rations  served  in  European  laborers'  messes 
was  1,108,175  and  the  total  number  of  rations  served  in  the  negro  messes  was 
584,457. 

THE    CANAL    ZONE 

The  Canal  Zone  does  not  come  under  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  but  is  governed  by  orders  made  by  the  President  or  the  Secretary  of 
AVar,  and  laws  especially  enacted  by  Congress.  Its  official  seal  bears  the  motto, 
"The  Land  Divided — The  World  United,"  and  consists  of  a  shield,  showing  in 
base  a  Spanish  galleon  of  the  fifteenth  century  under  full  sail  coming  head  on 
between  two  high  banks,  all  purpure,  the  sky  yellow  with  the  glow  of  sunset; 


A  view  of  the  town  of  Culebra  from  Mount  Zion  as  it  appeared  several  years  ago.  The 
buildings  to  the  right  along  the  edge  of  the  Canal,  have  all  been  removed  on  account  of  the 
slides  at  this  point. 


A  group  of  four-family  houses  for  American  married  employes,  Empire.     Large  verandas  are 
built  on  each  side  of  the  houses  and  all  are  screened. 


[  120] 


CTHB   Tv\ND    DIVIDED GTT\E,  ^ORIjD.JJ KITED 

in  the  chief  are  the  colors  of  the  arms  of  the  United  States.     Under  the  shield 
is  the  motto.     It  was  adopted  in  1906  after  a  design  of  Tiffany  &  Co. 

Up  to  September  1,  1904,  the  six  municipal  districts  in  which  the  Canal  Zone 
was  divided  were  governed  under  the  laws  of  Panama.  On  the  latter  date, 
the  Canal  Commission  by  law  created  five  municipal  districts,  each  with  a 
mayor,  municipal  council,  secretary,  and  treasurer.  These  five  municipal 
districts  were  abolished  April  1.5,  1907,  and  four  administrative  districts  were 
created.  On  November  17,  1906,  the  Department  of  Sanitation  was  separated 
from  the  Government  of  the  Canal  Zone,  and  the  latter  then  became  the  De- 
partment of  Law  and  Government  of  the  Canal  Zone  under  Mr.  Richard 


The  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  Chapel,  Ancon.  Nearly  all  the  principal  religious  denomina- 
tions are  represented  in  the  Canal  Zone,  and  there  are  upwards  of  40  places  of  worship.  The 
Commission  employs  several  Chaplains. 


Reid  Rodgers,  General  Counsel.  This  department  was  abolished  on  April  2, 
1907,  and  the  authority  of  the  chief  executive  of  the  Canal  Zone  was  vested  in 
the  Chairman  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission.  The  Chairman,  on  May  9, 
1907,  delegated  that  authority  to  a  member  of  the  Commission,  and  the  Presi- 
dent, by  an  Executive  Order  dated  January  6,  1906,  created  the  Department  of 
Civil  Administration. 

The  work  of  the  Department  of  Civil  Administration,  in  addition  to  the 
diplomatic  correspondence  between  the  Commission  and  the  Republic  of 
Panama  and  the  representatives  of  foreign  governments  in  Panama,  is  par- 
titioned, as  follows:  Posts,  customs  and  revenues;  police  and  prisons;  fire 
protection,  schools  and  the  office  of  the  treasurer  of  the  Canal  Zone.     The 

[  1^1  ] 


School  for  white  children  at  Empire.  Twelve  white  and  fifteen  colored  schools  are  main- 
tained. The  white  schools  are  in  charge  of  women  teachers  from  the  United  States;  the  colored 
schools  are  taught  by  male  West  Indians. 


A  neon  high  school  class,  term  of  1912-13.      There  are  two  high  schools  for  advanced  scholars. 

I   122  | 


Lg^IyMsi-P    piVIDED GT1\&  WORIjP>  ttnjtep 


judicial  branch  includes  a  Supreme  Court,  three  Circuit  Courts,  and  four 
District  Courts.  Up  to  July  16,  1913,  the  Division  of  Public  Works,  which  had 
in  charge  the  maintenance  of  streets,  roads,  trails,  water  works  and  sewers  in 
the  Canal  Zone  and  in  the  cities  of  Panama  and  Colon,  and  also  the  public 
markets  in  the  Zone,  was  made  a  part  of  this  department.  On  the  latter  date, 
it  became  merged  with  the  newly  created  Division  of  Municipal  Engineering, 
under  the  office  of  the  Chief  Engineer. 


THE    POSTAL    SERVICE 


The  Division  of  Posts,  Customs  and  Revenues,  as  its  name  implies,  has 
charge  of  all  post-offices  in  the  Canal  Zone,  the  customs  service  at  the  ports  of 


Post  Office  at  Ancon. 


Seventeen  Post  Offices  handle  the  Canal  Zone  mail. 
Banks  are  established  in  all  but  one  of  them. 


Postal  Savings 


Ancon  and  Cristobal,  and  the  collection  of  taxes  and  license  fees.  It  also  looks 
after  the  administration  of  the  estates  of  deceased  and  insane  employes  of  the 
Commission  and  Panama  Railroad  Company. 

The  postal  service  was  inaugurated  on  June  24,  1904,  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  Treasurer  of  the  Zone,  with  Panama  railroad  station  agents  acting 
as  postmasters  in  nine  offices.  There  are  now  20  offices  in  charge  of  regular 
postmasters  appointed  by  the  Director  of  Posts. 

From  June  24,  until  July  17,  1904,  Panama  postage  stamps  (which  were 
Colombian  stamps  surcharged  "Panama"),  having  the  words  "Canal  Zone" 
overprinted  with  a  rubber  stamp  were  used.  The  use  of  this  rubber  stamp 
kept  stamp  collectors  on  the  lookout  for  mistakes  in  the  surcharging  which 
would  tend  to  make  the  stamps  valuable.  On  July  17,  a  supply  of  United 
States  stamps,  surcharged  "('anal  Zone,"  was  put  into  use  and,  on  Decembers, 

[  123  ] 


CTHB  TvAND  .  DIVIDED  -^^TBJ^WOUJ^^  TTKITED 

1904,  these  were  replaced  by  the  Panamanian  stamp  surcharged  "Canal 
Zone,"  in  use  at  the  present  time.  Domestic  rates  of  postage  have  always 
applied  between  the  Canal  Zone  and  the  United  States,  and  for  this  reason  the 
postage  stamps  are  purchased  from  Panama  at  40  per  cent  of  their  face  value 


Zone  penitentiary.  This  was  formerly  located  at  Culebra,  but  was  removed,  along  with  many 
other  buildings,  on  account  of  the  slides.  The  offenders  in  the  Canal  Zone  are  kept  busy  build- 
ing roads. 

to  make  up  the  difference  in  the  rates  of  the  two  countries,  those  in  Panama 
being  slightly  higher. 

POSTAL    SAVINGS    BANK    A    POPULAR    INSTITUTION 

A  postal  savings  bank  was  authorized  by  Executive  Order  on  September  8, 
1911,  and  became  effective  on  November  8,  1911.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
fiscal  year  there  were  2,402  open  accounts  with  deposits  aggregating  $356,947. 
The  depositors  include  citizens  or  subjects  of  45  different  nations  and  depen- 
dencies. The  total  amount  of  the  deposits  during  this  period  was  $1,601,616, 
and  the  total  amount  of  withdrawals  $1,312,873,  an  increase  during  the  year 
of  $288,743,  which,  together  with  the  amount  of  deposits  on  July  1,  1912,  of 
$356,947,  shows  a  total  savings  deposit  at  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  of  $645,690, 
an  approximate  average  of  $203.11  for  each  of  the  3,179  depositors.  These 
accounts  are  practically  held  by  employes  of  the  Commission,  the  Panama 
Railroad  Company,  and  the  various  contractors.  In  addition  to  the  postal 
savings  accounts,  the  money  orders  issued  and  drawn  on  Canal  Zone  post- 
offices  payable  to  the  remitter  aggregated  on  June  30,  1913,  $156,916.20,  so 
that  the  total  savings  deposit  during  the  fiscal  year  was  really  $802,606.20. 

In  August,  1905,  a  registry  system  was  established  and,  in  June,  1906,  a 
money  order  system  was  inaugurated.  During  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 
1913,  238,316  money  orders  were  issued  for  a  total  of  $4,883,624.13.  The 
average  amount  of  each  order  was  $20.49.     Of  the  total  amount  of  orders  sold, 

[  124  ] 


q^FLE  Tv\N-D  ,  DIVIDED —cttke:  WORyfi  TIKITgg 

$3,917,899.30  was  payable  in  the  United  States  and  foreign   countries,  and 
orders  amounting  to  $965,724.83  were  payable  in  the  Canal  Zone. 

Parcels  post  has  not  yet  been  introduced,  and  there  are  no  letter  carriers  and, 
in  these  respects  only,  is  the  Canal  Zone  system  behind  the  service  in  the 
United  States.  A  count  of  the  mail  matter  received  and  dispatched  or  handled 
in  transit  on  the  Canal  Zone  during  the  month  of  August,  1912,  showed  that 
30  per  cent  of  the  total  was  official  matter. 

ZONE    CUSTOMS    SERVICE 

The  customs  service  of  the  Zone  includes  the  entry  and  clearance  of  ships 
at  the  two  ports,  Ancon  and  Cristobal,  the  signing  on  and  discharge  of  seamen, 
the  enforcement  of  the  Panama  Chinese,  Syrian  and  Turkish  exclusion  law. 
No  customs  duties  are  collected,  as  no  goods  are  allowed  to  be  imported  at 
Ancon  and  Cristobal,  except  those  necessary  and  convenient  for  the  construction 
of  the  Canal  and  for  the  use  of  employes  of  the  Commission,  fuel  for  sale  to 
vessels,  and  goods  in  transit.  During  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1913,  281 
vessels  entered  the  port  of  Ancon,  representing  a  total  tonnage  of  553,767, 
and  283  vessels  cleared  with  a  total  tonnage  of  556,306.  At  Cristobal,  280 
vessels  entered  representing  a  tonnage  of  849,702,  and  283  vessels  cleared  with 
a  total  tonnage  of  858,703.  <<        ,, 

8  THE    ZONE        DRY 

Up  to  July  1,  1913,  saloon  licenses  formed  a  large  part  of  the  internal 
revenues  of  the  Zone.  On  that  date  the  Canal  Zone  went  "dry"  in  accordance 
with  an  order  of  the  Commission,  and  35  saloons  went  out  of  business.     The 


A  squad  of  Zone  policemen.  The  officers  and  first  class  policemen  are  Americans,  most  of 
whom  have  seen  service  in  the  Spanish-American  war.  The  ordinary  policemen  are  West 
Indians. 

[  125  ] 


Central  fire  station  at  Cristobal.       Fire  stations  are  maintained  at  all  important  points,  their  size 
and  equipment  depending  on  the  amount  of  property  to  be  protected. 


Canal  Zone  automobile  fire  engine.     The  department  is  equipped  with  two,  one  stationed 

at  Cristobal,  and  the  other  at  Ancon. 

r  i26 1 


CTHE  TvANP    DIVIDED CTVl^j  WO^^J[JNJTED 

license  fee  was  $1,200.  On  January  1,  1913,  the  distillation  of  liquor  and  the 
manufacture  of  rum  upon  which  taxes  had  been  levied  was  prohibited  in  the 
Canal  Zone  by  Executive  Order.  The  taxes  now  include  a  real  estate  rental 
tax,  and  miscellaneous  license  fees.  Fines  and  costs  also  constitute  a  source  of 
revenue. 

During  the  year,  all  leases  for  agricultural  land  and  building  lots  not 
covered  by  revocable  licenses  were  cancelled.  As  the  depopulation  of  the 
Canal  Zone  has  been  carried  on  during  the  past  year,  the  amount  derived  from 
license  fees  has  naturally  decreased.  The  total  revenues  for  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1913,  amounted  to  $283,846.31.  All  funds  thus  collected  are  expended 
for  local  purposes.  The  revenues  received  from  the  postal  service  are  applied 
to  the  maintenance  of  that  service,  and  other  funds  are  used  for  the  support  of 


A  typical  pay  day  scene.  Pay  days  occur  once  a  month  and  the  dates  range  from  the  first  to 
the  twelfth.  White  American  employes  are  known  as  Gold  Employes,  and  all  others  as  Silver 
Employes.     All  are  identified  by  the  numbers  on  their  metal  checks. 

the  public  school  system,  and  for  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  public 
works. 

KEEPING    ORDER 

The  Division  of  Police  and  Prisons  was  organized  on  June  2,  1904.  Its 
work  has  been  entirely  successful  and  the  Canal  Zone  in  which  representatives 
of  nearly  every  nation  live  and  are  employed  is  remarkably  free  from  crime. 
One  thing  which  has  helped  to  make  it  a  moral  community  is  the  strict  enforce- 
ment of  the  liquor  laws  and  regulations,  the  prohibition  of  gambling,  and  public 
prostitution.  All  of  these  vices,  however,  exist  in  the  neighboring  cities  of 
Colon  and  Panama,  with  one  exception  of  gambling.  In  addition  to  the 
district  jails,  there  is  also  maintained  a  penitentiary.  Police  stations  are  located 
in  most  of  the  Canal  Zone  villages  and  the  force  is  made  up  of  white  ex-army 
and  navy  men  and  colored  police  officers  who  have  seen  service  in  the  Jamaican 
constabulary.  All  convicts  as  well  as  district  prisoners  work  on  the  public 
roads.  The  work  performed  by  the  convicts  in  the  penitentiary  nearly  paid 
the  cost  of  guarding,  subsisting  and  clothing  them. 

GUARDING    AGAINST    FIRES 

The  Division  of  Fire  Protection  was  organized  in  October,  1905,  and  on 
December  1,  a  fire  chief  was  appointed.     His  work  consisted  in  organizing 

[   127  J 


CmB  T^AN-P  .  DIVIDED CTHB  WOI3JL>D,'TTXITED 

volunteer  companies  composed  of  Commission  and  Panama  railroad  employes. 
In  November,  1906,  the  first  paid  company,  composed  of  experienced  firemen 
from  the  States,  was  established  at  Cristobal.  The  organization  consists  of 
37  firemen  in  addition  to  a  chief,  assistant  chief,  six  captains,  six  lieutenants, 


First  United  States  Court  held  on  the  Canal  Zone  at  Ancon. 

and  15  volunteer  companies  with  a  total  membership  of  252.  The  equipment 
includes  two  modern  automobile  fire  engines,  one  stationed  at  Cristobal,  and 
the  other  at  Ancon.  The  department  answers  alarms  in  Panama  and  Colon 
when  property  belonging  to  the  Panama  railroad  or  to  the  United  States 
Government  is  in  danger,  or  upon  the  request  of  the  Panama  authorities.  The 
Canal  Zone  has  been  remarkably  free  from  fires,  but  a  well  organized  fire  system 
is  necessary,  as  the  Government  and  the  Panama  Railroad  Company  do  not 
carry  insurance  on  their  property.  The  largest  and  most  expensive  fire  in  the 
Canal  Zone  was  that  when  the  storehouse  at  Mount  Hope  burned  in  1907,  with 
a  total  loss  of  $417,548.09. 

EDUCATIONAL    FACILITIES 

The  Zone  public  school  system  was  organized  in  1904,  but  no  action  was 
taken  until  December,  1905,  when  a  census  of  children  of  school  age,  six  years 
and  over,  was  taken.  The  first  school  was  opened  at  Corozal  on  June  2,  1906. 
There  were  29  schools  on  June  30,  1913,  fourteen  for  white  children  and  15  for 
colored  children.  The  school  year  covers  the  period  October  1  to  June  30. 
A  total  of  1,369  white  children  and  1,580  colored  children  were  enrolled  in  the 
schools  at  the  close  of  the  1913  term.  In  the  high  school  maintained  for  white 
pupils  there  were  93  students,  seven  of  whom  graduated.  Children  living  in 
towns  where  there  are  no  schools  are  provided  with  free  railroad  or  wagon 
transportation  to  the  nearest  school  town.     At  the  close  of  the  school  year  there 

[   128  ] 


J>AN-D    piVIDED CTTftE,  WOB^JtJFJNJTED 

were  47  teachers  employed  in  the  schools  for  white  children  and  32  in  the  schools 
for  colored  children.  These  teachers  received  monthly  salaries  of  either 
$90  or  $110,  according  to  their  length  of  service. 

THE    LAW    DEPARTMENT 

The  Department  of  Law  of  the  Canal  Commission  has  charge  of  all  of  its 
civil  cases,  as  well  as  the  government  of  the  Canal  Zone.  It  attends  to  the 
prosecution  of  all  crimes  and  misdemeanors  in  the  Supreme  and  Circuit  Courts 
of  the  Zone,  and  its  head  and  his  assistants  furnish  opinions  when  called  upon 
to  the  Chairman  and  Chief  Engineer  and  the  various  departmental  chiefs. 
Land  matters  of  the  Commission  and  the  Panama  railroad  are  under  the  juris- 
diction of  the  department,  managed  by  a  land  agent,  and  in  addition,  the 
department  head  looks  after  the  legal  affairs  of  the  railroad.  Since  the  organi- 
zation of  the  Joint  Land  Commission,  the  department  has  represented  the 
interests  of  the  United  States  in  the  adjustment  or  claims.  Judge  Frank  Feuille, 
who  has  held  a  number  of  important  posts  in  the  legal  departments  of  Porto 
Rico,  and  who  was  connected  with  the  Department  of  State  and  Justice  in 
Cuba  during  the  administration  of  the  affairs  of  that  island  by  Judge  C.  E. 
Magoon,  is  Counsel  and  Chief  Attornev  for  the  Commission  and  Panama 
railroad.  His  assistants  are  W.  K.  Jackson,  Prosecuting  Attorney,  and  C.  R. 
Williams,  Assistant  Prosecuting  Attorney. 

PAYING    THE    CANAL    FORCE 

The  Department  of  Disbursements  has  charge  of  the  disbursements  of  all 
funds  in  connection  with  the  Canal  work  on  the  Isthmus. 


Present  Court  House  at  Empire.     The  United  States  possesses  all  authority  over  the  Canal 
Zone,  policing  the  territory  and  holding  complete  judicial  power. 

[  129  ] 


lB  TvAN-D    DIVIDED cTTHB  \jg)g^fi  TTNJTED 

In  1904,  when  only  the  fluctuating  Colombian  silver  currency  was  available 
for  the  payment  of  silver  employes,  it  was  customary  to  advertise  for  this  money 
in  such  sums  as  were  required.  The  bid  which  gave  the  best  return  was 
accepted.  The  premium  paid  varied  from  117  on  May  23,  1904,  the  date  of 
the  first  sale,  to  110  in  August,  1904,  and  rose  from  then  to  115  in  January, 
1905,  the  time  the  last  sale  was  made  under  this  plan.  This  made  the  old 
Colombian  peso  vary  from  $.4606  (expressed  in  United  States  values),  to  $.4755, 
it  being  worth  $.464  at  the  time  of  the  last  sale.  The  requirements  of  the  Dis- 
bursing Office  at  that  time  were  much  more  limited  than  now,  a  total  of  $523,000 
sufficing  for  expenditure  from  May  23,  1904,  up  to  the  time  Panama  money  was 
introduced  in  March,  1905,  an  amount  less  than  one-third  of  the  total  of  one 
month's  pay  roll  in  1913.  During  this  period  American  employes  exchanged  a 
part  of  their  gold  for  Colombian  currency  and  paid  their  local  obligations  in  that 
money,  in  that  way  netting  a  profit  of  about  $7.50  gold  on  each  $100  in  gold 
exchanged.  In  other  words  he  would  get  $215  silver  for  $100  in  gold,  and  as 
local  prices,  board,  etc.,  were  based  on  silver,  he  was  the  gainer  in  the  transac- 
tion. The  situation  was  much  simplified  when  the  United  States  minted  the 
money  for  the  national  currency  of  Panama,  by  fixing  the  value  of  the  Panama 
peso  at  the  ratio  of  two  for  one,  but  the  profits  on  exchange  were  at  once  lost,  for 
local  prices  immediately  reverted  to  the  gold  basis,  and  employes  who  were 
formerly  paying  $50  silver  for  board,  less  the  profit  on  exchange,  then  paid  $25 
gold  flat. 

The  gold  payments  were  first  made  in  United  States  paper,  but  this  was 
found  to  be  both  expensive  and  inconvenient,  for  the  reason  that  the  local 
merchants  and  others  shipped  these  bills  out  of  the  country  as  fast  as  they  were 
brought  in,  as  they  made  a  cheap  means  of  exchange.  On  May  1,  1905,  an 
agreement,  which  had  previously  been  made  by  the  Secretary  of  War  with 
bankers  in  Panama  City,  commonly  spoken  of  as  the  "Bankers'  Agreement," 
became  effective.  Under  this  arrangement,  the  Commission  secured  from  four 
banking  firms  in  Panama  all  the  United  States  money  necessary  for  the  work  on 
the  Isthmus  upon  the  payment  of  a  premium  of  f  of  one  per  cent.  This  agree- 
ment expired  by  limitation  on  April  30,  1906,  and  was  not  renewed.  Shipment 
of  gold  coin  from  the  United  States  was  then  begun.     On  account  of  the  export 


Offices  of  the  Disbursing  Officer,  and  of  the  Examiner  of  Accounts,  Empire. 

[  130  1 


tax  imposed  by  the  Republic  of  Panama  on  coin,  either  gold  or  silver,  this 
money  could  not  be  shipped  out  to  advantage  as  was  done  in  the  case  of  bills. 
The  bankers  finally  announced  their  willingness  to  receive  disbursing  officer's 
checks  on  the  New  York  sub-treasury  at  par,  in  exchange  for  gold  and  silver,  so 


1  m 

*  ■       ™                 ''HE*,  f  ~;\      11 

■  Mb  Mil:,     tig    Wr  * 

-',!„ T             I     ■•»- 

A  Commission  brake,  used  in  carrying  children  to  and  from  school.  The  Canal  Commission 
lends  every  aid  to  the  cause  of  education  in  the  Canal  Zone.  When  necessary  to  use  the  railroad, 
passes  are  given  the  pupils. 


that  shipments  of  gold  from  the  United  States  to  the  Isthmus  grew  less  and  less, 
and  for  a  time  ceased  altogether.  For  a  long  time  American  employes  were  paid 
their  salaries  solely  in  gold,  but  with  the  increase  in  circulation  of  paper  on  the 
Isthmus  due  in  part  to  the  increase  in  tourist  trade,  and  in  part  to  the  resump- 
tion of  paper  shipments  from  the  United  States,  they  are  now  frequently  paid 
in  bills. 

Silver  employes  were  paid  semi-monthly  up  to  and  including  September, 
1907,  as  they  were  unable  to  get  credit  from  the  Chinese  merchants,  from  whom 
they  made  their  purchases,  for  more  than  two  weeks  at  a  time.  With  the  open- 
ing of  the  commissaries  and  laborers'  kitchens,  and  the  privilege  accorded  labor- 
ers of  procuring  commissary  books  and  meal  tickets  to  be  charged  against  their 
time,  the  necessity  for  a  double  pay  day  each  month  ceased  to  exist,  and  since 
then  there  has  been  but  one  pay  day  monthly.  Two  pay  offices  are  maintained, 
one  at  Ancon,  and  the  other  at  Cristobal,  and,  in  addition,  a  pay  car  visits  all 
parts  of  the  work  each  month.  The  pay  day  period  ranges  from  the  1st  to  the 
U2th. 

At  the  outset  some  criticism  developed  over  the  lapse  of  time  between  the 
close  of  the  month  and  the  pay  day  for  employes.  This  led  to  an  investigation 
of  practices  in  vogue  in  making  payments  by  large  employers  of  labor.  The 
pay  envelope  method  was  found  impracticable,  likewise  the  signature  pay  roll 
method,  although  this  system  was  tried  for  a  month  in  1905.     The  system 

[  131  ] 


CTHE,  TvANP    piVIDED CTHE,  WOB^g>--IINJTEP 

finally  adopted  and  still  in  use,  consists  of  certificates  made  out  for  each  indi- 
vidual payment,  duly  checked  and  authenticated.  This  certificate  when 
properly  signed  by  the  payee  and  witnessed  by  an  employe  who  is  bonded  for 
that  purpose,  and  presented  by  the  payee  on  the  pay  car,  or  at  one  of  the  pay 
offices,  is  immediately  paid  the  amount  called  for  thereon. 

During  the  fiscai  year  ending  June  30,  1913,  a  total  of  $20,524,705.75  was 
disbursed  on  the  Isthmus  for  salaries  and  wages,  $9,228,633.99  to  gold  employes 
of  the  Commission,  and  $11,296,071.76  to  the  silver  employes,  an  average  of 
$1,710,392.14  a  month.  Public  bills  and  reimbursement  vouchers  paid  on  the 
Isthmus  aggregated  $9,035,630.18,  making  a  grand  total  of  $29,560,335.93 
disbursed.  During  the  same  period,  miscellaneous  collections  were  deposited 
with  the  Treasurer  of  the  United  States  at  Washington  to  the  amount  of  $3,940.- 
102.82.  The  value  of  the  hotel  books  issued  by  this  department  during  the 
fiscal  year  1912-13,  was  $1,305,405  in  $4.80  and  $15  denominations. 

The  first  disbursing  officer  was  Lieut.  Mark  Brooke,  who  temporarily 
disbursed  funds  from  an  amount  borrowed  from  the  director  general  of  the 
French  Canal  Company,  as  when  the  Americans  took  charge  on  May  4,  1904, 
there  was  not  a  cent  with  which  to  pay  bills.  He  was  succeeded  by  Paymaster 
Eugene  C.  Tobey  of  the  United  States  Navy,  who  was  later  relieved  by  Pay- 
master George  C.  Schafer,  also  of  the  Navy.  On  November  23,  1905,  Mr. 
Edward  J.  Williams  was  appointed  to  the  position,  and  under  him  the  present 
organization  was  largely  perfected.  Mr.  Williams  resigned  on  August  30,  1913, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  James  H.  McLean. 

ACCOUNTS 

The  Department  of  Examination  of  Accounts  is  charged  with  the  handling 
of  the  general  accounting,  pay  rolls,  vouchers,  coupon  books  and  meal  tickets, 
files  and  bonds,  injury  claims,  contract  laborers,  time  inspection,  timekeeping, 
Canal  Zone  accounts,  and  inspection  of  accountable  officers.  The  major 
portion  of  the  funds  of  the  Canal  Zone  are  on  deposit  in  Washington,  with  the 
exception  of  $100,000  deposited  with  a  local  bank,  and  on  June  30,  1913, 
amounted  to  $2,168,339.62.  Consideration  of  injury  claims  is  one  of  the  most 
important  items  of  the  department's  work.  A  total  of  7,270  claims  for  compen- 
sation for  death  or  injury  were  handled  from  August  1,  1908  to  June  30,  1913. 
Of  the  1,850  cases  disposed  of  during  the  last  fiscal  year  (1912-13),  1,452  claims 
for  injury,  and  21  death  claims,  were  granted.  The  total  value  of  these  claims, 
inclusive  of  grants  made  on  account  of  meritorious  sick  leave,  aggregated 
$224,071.72.  The  average  duration  of  disability  of  cases  for  which  injury 
compensation  claims  have  been  filed  is  58  days,  and  the  average  estimated 
duration  of  cases  in  which  meritorious  sick  leave  has  been  granted  is  five  days. 
During  the  period  from  August  1,  1908  to  June  30,  1913,  a  total  of  $915,824.79 
has  been  paid  on  account  of  injuries  received  by  employes  in  course  of  employ- 
ment. 

NO    GRAFT 

One  of  the  first  questions  a  visitor  to  the  Isthmus  asks  is,  "How  much  graft 
has  there  been  ?"  A  good  many  are  inclined  to  be  skeptical  when  told  that 
there  have  been  no  cases  of  graft  on  this  job,  and  that -the  would-be  grafter  has 
had  but  little  opportunity  to  exercise  his  gift  during  the  greater  part  of  the  canal 
period.     It  is  to  be  supposed  that  the  word  is  referred  to  in  its  larger  sense 

[  132  1 


Balboa  Hill  is  three  hours'  journey  from  Gorgona  over  a  well-marked  trail.  From  its  top,  a 
height  of  about  1,000  feet,  both  oceans  may  be  seen  on  a  clear  day.  The  author  is  standing  on 
The  Trail  which  leads  up  the  hill. 


133 


CTfiB  TiANP  .  DIVIDED  ^q^HB  JW.QBfeg» IJNJTEP 

when  it  is  said  there  has  been  no  graft.  There  have  been  instances  where 
silver  foremen  were  charged  with  using  their  power  of  place  by  discharging 
some  laborer  who  refused  to  give  him  money.  In  many  of  these  cases,  the 
charges  proved  to  be  unfounded,  and,  as  it  developed,  were  actuated  by  spite. 
There  is  no  authenticated  case,  however,  in  the  nearly  ten  years  of  canal  work, 
where  a  case  of  graft  with  the  hope  of  great  gain  in  view,  has  been  disclosed. 
The  work  is  too  open  and  above  board. 

It  would  not  be  accurate  to  say  that  in  the  early  days  of  the  work,  when 
there  were  no  time  inspectors  on  the  job,  or  other  safeguards  imposed,  there 
were  no  opportunities.  But  as  far  as  the  Commission  employes  then  were 
concerned,  they,  for  the  greater  part,  regarded  themselves  as  being  placed  on 
their  honor,  and  the  idea  held.  As  the  force  was  enlarged,  it  became  more 
diversified  in  character  and  temperament,  and  elements  were  introduced  that 
required  watching,  not  for  any  big  forms  of  graft,  but  for  the  milder  forms,  such 
as  malingering,  or  more  plainly  speaking,  loafing  on  the  Government's  time. 
Thus  was  ushered  in  the  era  of  the  "gumshoes,"  as  the  Commission  time 
inspectors  are  generally  known. 

The  American  visitor,  however,  when  he  alludes  to  graft  refers  to  the 
pulling  off  of  some  big  deal  in  which  the  Government  has  been  "worked"  to  a 
frazzle.  The  Government,  represented  on  the  Isthmus  by  the  Canal  Com- 
mission, has  never  been  successfully  "worked,"  or  have  there  been  any  big 
"rake-offs."  Of  course,  there  have  been  plenty  of  cases  of  plain  thievery,  and 
other  forms  of  petty  crime  aimed  at  cheating  or  robbing  the  Government,  but 
these  have  been  dealt  with  by  the  law,  and  usually  the  offenders  have  been 
punished  severely,  for  to  steal  from  Uncle  Sam  is  almost  equivalent  to  murder 
in  the  second  degree. 

Stories  have  been  told,  although  the  writer  does  not  vouch  for  their 
authenticity,  how  some  collectors  on  the  Panama  railroad  during  the  beginning 
of  canal  construction  made  immense  sums  and  were  able  to  retire  to  a  life  of 
independence  and  ease,  a  state  that  their  length  of  service  and  previous  salary 
would  scarcely  warrant.  The  strings  have  been  drawn  much  closer  since  then, 
and  the  opportunities  for  mulcting  the  railroad  have  grown  beautifully  less. 
As  concerns  the  canal  work,  however,  the  amount  of  grafting  has  always  been 
a  negligible  quantity,  and  this  fact  will  forever  be  one  of  the  biggest  things 
about  this  big  undertaking. 


[  1^4  ] 


0 
1 

1 

HE  idea  of  a  lock  and  lake  level  canal  was  not  a  new  one,  for  it  was 
first  suggested  in  the  engineering  congress  convened  in  Paris  in  1879, 
at  which  the  French  adopted  the  sea  level  plan.  At  this  congress, 
Godin  de  Lepinay  outlined  the  essential  features  of  the  canal  as  it 
is  today,  a  lake  level  with  a  dam  across  the  Chagres  at  Gatnn.  Again,  when 
it  became  evident  in  1887  that  the  sea  level  canal  could  not  be  completed  by 
the  old  French  Canal  Company,  a  temporary  lock  plan  was  adopted.  When 
the  United  States  took  over  the  work  in  1904  no  plan  had  been  determined 
upon.  To  decide  this  question,  ex-President  Roosevelt,  under  date  of  June 
24,  1905,  created  an  International  Board  of  Consulting  Engineers,  consisting 
of  13  members  as  follows:  Gen.  George  W.  Davis,  Chairman,  Alfred  Noble, 
one  of  the  constructing  engineers  of  the  Soo  canal;  William  Barclay  Parsons, 
engineer  of  the  New  York  underground  system;  William  H.  Burr,  professor  of 
engineering  in  Columbia  college;  Gen.  Henry  L.  Abbott,  army  engineer,  whose 
observations  on  the  topography  and  characteristics  of  the  canal  territory  were 
valuable;  Frederic  P.  Stearns,  hydraulic  engineer  of  Boston;  Joseph  Ripley,  at 
one  time  chief  engineer  of  the  Soo  canal,  and  afterwards  employed  by  the 
Isthmian  Canal  Commission  as  lock  expert;  Herman  Schussler,  Isham  Ran- 
dolph of  Chicago  Drainage  Canal  fame;  W.  Henry  Hunter,  chief  engineer  of 
the  Manchester  ship  canal,  representing  the  British  Government;  Eugen 
Tincauzer,  chief  engineer  of  the  canal  at  Kiel,  representing  the  German  Gov- 
ernment; Adolphe  Guerard,  civil  engineer,  representing  the  French  Govern- 
ment; Edouard  Quellennec,  consulting  engineer  of  the  Suez  Canal,  and  J.  W. 
Welcker,  engineer  and  constructor  of  the  North  Sea  canal,  representing  the 
Holland  Government.  This  board,  on  January  10,  1906,  submitted  two 
reports,  a  majority  report,  signed  by  eight  members  of  whom  five  were  the 
representatives  of  foreign  governments,  favoring  a  sea  level  canal,  and  a  mi- 
nority report,  signed  by  five  members,   all   of  whom  were  Americans,  and  in 

[  135  ] 


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[136 


CTH&  Jv\N-D    piVIDED-^cn^F\B  WOBIjR  ITNJTED 

favor  of  a  lock  canal.  These  reports  were  submitted  to  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission  for  consideration  and  the  latter  made  a  report  to  the  Secretary  of 
War  on  February  5,  1906,  in  which  all  of  its  members  with  the  exception  of 
Civil  Engineer  Endicott,  U.  S.  N.,  favored  the  lock  plan.  Mr.  Stevens,  at 
that  time  chief  engineer,  submitted  a  statement  in  favor  of  the  lock  plan,  and 
the  Secretary  of  War  in  his  letter  of  transmittal  of  the  reports  to  the  President 
also  favored  it.  On  February  19,  1906,  President  Roosevelt  submitted  these 
various  reports  to  Congress,  together  with  a  letter  of  recommendation  in 
which  he  said: 


The  hydraulic  core,  or  water-tight  portion  of  the  Dam,  together  with  the  two  outer  walls,  or 
toes.  The  toes  are  1,200  feet  apart  at  the  base,  and  the  space  between  is  filled  with  an  impervious 
mixture  of  sand  and  clay  sucked  up  and  pumped  in  by  dredges  from  the  old  bed  of  the  Chagres 
River.  The  toes  were  brought  together  at  the  top  where  they  cap  the  fill.  The  entire  Dam  con- 
tains about  21,000,000  cubic  yards  of  material,  equally  divided  between  dry  and  wet  fill.  The  up- 
stream side  is  riprapped  above  the  water  level  to  minimize  wave  action. 

"A  careful  study  of  the  reports  seems  to  establish  a  strong  probability  that 
the  following  are  the  facts:  The  sea  level  canal  would  be  slightly  less  exposed 
to  damage  in  the  event  of  war,  the  running  expenses,  apart  from  the  heavy 
cost  of  interest  on  the  amount  employed  to  build  it,  would  be  less,  and  for  small 
ships  the  time  of  transit  would  probably  be  less.  On  the  other  hand,  the  lock 
canal  at  a  level  of  80  feet,  or  thereabouts,  would  not  cost  much  more  than  half 
as  much  to  build  and  could  be  built  in  about  half  the  time,  while  there  would  be 
very  much  less  risk  connected  with  building  it,  and  for  large  ships  the  transit 
would  be  quicker;  while,  taking  into  account  the  interest  on  the  amount  saved 
in  building,  the  actual  cost  of  maintenance  would  be  less.  After  being  built 
it  would  be  easier  to  enlarge  the  lock  canal  than  the  sea  level  canal.     Moreover, 

[  137  ] 


^THB  IiAN-P    DIVIDED— ^THE,  WORl^JfTNITED 

what  has  been  actually  demonstrated  in  making  and  operating  the  great  lock 
canal,  the  Soo,  a  more  important  artery  of  traffic  than  the  great  sea  level  canal, 
the  Suez,  goes  to  support  the  opinion  of  the  minority  of  the  Consulting  Board  of 
Engineers  and  of  the  majority  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  as  to  the 
superior  safety,  feasibility,  and  desirability  of  building  a  lock  canal  at  Panama." 
Congress  on  June  29,  1906,  decided  upon  a  lock  canal  at  an  elevation  of  85 
feet.  That  this  was  the  best  plan  to  pursue  has  been  proved  by  experience  with 
slides  which  added  greatly  to  the  estimated  amount  of  excavation  necessary 
under  either  plan. 

THE    (ANAL    A    WATER    BRIDGE 

The  completed  canal  is  virtually  a  water  bridge  over  which  ships  will  pass 
from  ocean  to  ocean.  There  was  no  mating  of  the  Atlantic  with  the  Pacific 
when  the  dike  at  Gamboa  was  destroyed  on  Friday,  October  10,  1913,  and  the 
waters  of  Gatun  Lake  were  allowed  to  flow  into  Culebra  Cut,  for  lake  and  Cut 
are,  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  85  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.     From  deep 


Early  subsidence  in  Gatun  Dam.  This  occurrence  caused  the  sensational  stories  in  the  news- 
papers in  the  United  States  in  1908,  to  the  effect  that  the  Dam  had  sunk  and  that  the  foundation 
was  unsuitable  for  such  a  massive  structure.  The  completed  Dam  demonstrates  that  the  state- 
ments were  entirely  unfounded,  and  that  it  is  as  effective  a  water  barrier  as  the  age-old  hills  upon 
which  it  abuts. 

water  in  the  Atlantic  to  deep  water  in  the  Pacific  the  Canal  is  about  50  miles 
long;  from  shore  line  to  shore  line  it  is  about  40  miles  long.  It  does  not,  as  is 
quite  generally  thought,  cross  the  Isthmus  from  east  to  west.  Its  general 
direction  is  from  northwest  to  southeast,  and  the  city  of  Panama  at  the  Pacific 
entrance  is  about  22|  miles  southeast  of  Cristobal  at  the  Atlantic  entrance. 

Starting  in  the  Atlantic,  a  vessel  enters  a  sea  level  channel  500  feet  wide  to 
Gatun,  a  distance  of  seven  miles,  where  it  will  be  lifted  by  a  flight  of  three  locks, 
or  immovable  water  elevators,  having  a  combined  lift  of  85  feet,  to  the  level  of 
Gatun  Lake.  The  lake  proper  to  Bas  Obispo,  the  beginning  of  Culebra  Cut, 
the  man-made  pass  through  the  continental  divide,  is  about  24  miles  long,  and 
the  channel  through  it  varies  from  1,000  to  500  feet  in  width,  with  a  water  depth 

[  138  ] 


Experimental  spillway  at  Gatun  Dam.     Like  all  other  important  features  of  the  Canal  work, 
experiments  were  made  to  ascertain  the  proper  method  of  constructing  the  -work. 


Gatun  spillway,  looking  from  the  lake.     The  spillway  is  a  concrete  lined  opening,  1,200  feet 
long,  285  feet  wide  and  is  situated  about  midway  of  Gatun  Dam. 

r  139 1 


CTHE,  Tv\NP    DIVIDED— CTTHB  WORL)D,  TTNJTED 


from  85  to  45  feet.  While  in  the  lake  a  vessel  may  steam  at  full  speed.  The 
channel  through  Culebra  Cut  as  far  as  Pedro  Miguel,  nine  miles,  narrows  to 
300  feet,  the  minimum  bottom  width  of  the  Canal.  At  Pedro  Miguel,  the 
vessel  is  ready  to  begin  the  descent  to  the  Pacific.  There  is  a  single  lock  here, 
which  lowers  the  vessel  3()i  feet  to  a  small  artificial  body  of  water  called  Mira- 
flores  Lake,  which  is  about  1|  miles  long  and  54§  feet  above  sea  level.  The 
final  descent  to  sea  level  is  made  at  Miraflores  by  a  flight  of  two  locks.  The 
vessel  has  now  passed  over  the  bridge,  and  is  ready  to  proceed  through  a  sea 
level  channel  81  miles  to  deep  water  in  the  Pacific.  This  channel,  like  the  one 
on  the  Atlantic  side,  has  a  bottom  width  of  500  feet,  but  its  depth  is  45  feet 
at  mean  tide,  instead  of  41  feet.  This  difference  in  the  depth  of  the  two  sea 
level  approaches  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  necessary  to  partly  counteract  a 
maximum  tidal  oscillation  in  the  Pacific  of  21  feet;  that  in  the  Atlantic  is  but 
2|  feet;  the  mean  sea  level  is  the  same  in  both  oceans. 

THE    DAM    AT    GATUN 

When  plans  for  a  sea  level  canal  were  under  consideration,  one  of  the 
hardest  problems  to  solve  was  the  diversion  of  the  Chagres  River.     Now, 


Water  from  the  lake  flowing  over  the  spillway,  during  the  rainy  season,  before  it  was  completed. 
The  spillway  will  control  the  rise  and  fall  of  Gatun  Lake. 

however,  with  a  lock  canal,  the  Chagres  is  the  key  to  the  situation.  By  placing 
a  dam  across  the  lower  end  of  its  valley,  its  water  and  that  of  its  tributaries  have 
been  impounded  to  form  Gatun  Lake.  The  dam  is,  in  reality,  a  low  ridge 
of  earth  connecting  the  hills  on  either  side  of  the  valley,  and  looks  as  though  it 
had  been  placed  there  by  nature  rather  than  by  the  efforts  of  man.  It  is  1| 
miles  long,  105  feet  above  mean  sea  level,  or  20  feet  above  the  normal  level  of 
the  lake,  and  tapers  from  nearly  \  a  mile  wide  at  its  base,  to  about  100  feet  wide 

[  140  ] 


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[141] 


Jv\N-D    piVIDED ^T^jE^J^Q^yjD,  TJNJTED 

at  the  top.  It  was  constructed  of  material  taken  from  the  Canal  amounting 
to  about  21,000,000  cubic  yards.  The  method  of  construction  consisted  in 
building  up  two  parallel  ridges  or  toes  of  earth  riprapped  with  rock.  Between 
these  two  ridges,  suction  dredges  pumped  sand  and  clay  mixed  with  water 
from  the  bed  of  the  Chagres  river.  As  the  water  drained  out  of  this  interior 
fill,  the  clay  mixture  dried  and  hardened  and  formed  an  impervious  core. 

In  November,  1908,  a  portion  of  one  of  the  rock  toes  sank  into  the  silt  and 
soft  mud  deposited  in  the  bottom  of  the  old  French  Canal  Channel  which 
passed  through  the  site  of  the  dam.  This  had  been  anticipated  by  the  engin- 
eers on  the  Isthmus,  but  at  the  time  it  led  to  sensational  stories  in  the  news- 
papers in  the  United  States,  to  the  effect  that  the  dam  had  sunk  and  that  the 


The  overflow  from  the  spillway  passing  out  through  the  old  bed  of  the  Chagres  River  into  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  With  the  lake  at  its  maximum  elevation  of  87  feet,  the  regulating  gates  in  the 
spillway  will  permit  of  the  discharge  of  a  greater  volume  of  water  than  the  known  maximum 
discharge  of  the  Chagres  River  during  a  flood. 


foundation  was  unsuitable  for  such  a  massive  structure.  To  allay  the  fears 
aroused,  President  Roosevelt  sent  a  special  board  of  consulting  engineers  to 
the  Isthmus  to  make  an  examination  of  the  work  in  progress,  and  particularly 
of  Gatun  Dam.  This  engineering  board,  consisting  of  Frederic  P.  Stearns, 
Arthur  P.  Davis,  Henry  A.  Allen,  James  D.  Schuyler,  Isham  Randolph,  John 
R.  Freeman,  and  Allen  Hazen,  reported  on  February  16,  1909,  that:  "The 
design  upon  which  work  on  the  dam  is  now  being  prosecuted  abundantly  fulfills 
the  required  degree  of  stability  and  goes  far  beyond  the  limits  of  what  would  be 
regarded  as  sufficient  and  safe  in  any  less  important  structure."  It  also  recom- 
mended that  the  height  of  the  dam  as  originally  proposed  be  reduced  20  feet. 

[  142  ] 


Miraf lores  spillway,  completed  September  1,  1913.    Lies  between  Miraf lores  Locks  and  rising  ground 
to  the  east,  and  forms  Miraflores  Lake.    It  also  regulates  the  level  of  the  lake. 


Hydroelectric  station,  Gatun  spillway,  under  construction,  showing  location  of  penstocks. 

[  H3] 


CTFIB  T^NNP    DIVIDED- qTIB  WOI^D,  T1KITED 


The  completed  dam  has  demonstrated  the  fact  that  it  is  as  effective  a  water 
barrier  as  the  age-old  hills  upon  which  it  abuts. 

GATUN    SPILLWAY 

In  order  that  the  lake  will  not  rise  above  87  feet  and  reach  the  point  where 
it  would  flow  over  the  crest  and  endanger  the  dam,  a  spillway  has  been  con- 
structed through  a  rock  hill  nearly  in  its  center.  This  is  a  concrete-lined 
channel  1,200  feet  long  and  285  feet  wide,  10  feet  above  sea  level  at  the  lake 
end  and  sloping  to  sea  level  at  the  foot.  At  the  lake  end  a  concrete  dam  has 
been  built  in  the  form  of  a  crescent  808  feet  long,  closing  the  285-foot  channel. 
This  dam  is  69  feet  above  sea  level,  or  10  feet  below  the  normal  level  of  the  lake, 
and  at  its  top  there  are  13  concrete  piers  between  which  there  are  mounted  14 
electrically  operated  gates  to  control  the  flow  of  water.  The  piers  and  the 
gates  bring  the  height  of  the  spillway  dam  to  115.5  feet  above  sea  level,  or  30.5 
feet  above  the  lake  level.  With  these  gates  open  the  spillway  will  be  able  to 
discharge  as  high  as  140,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second,  a  larger  amount 
than  the  maximum  known  discharge  of  the  Chagres  during  a  flood. 

GATUN    LAKE 

The  lake  which  covers  an  area  of  163.38  square  miles  and  contains  about 
183  billion  cubic  feet  of  water,  saved  excavating  a  24-mile  channel  to  the 
beginning  of  the  cut  through  the  continental  divide  at  Bas  Obispo.     It  also 


The  penstocks  at  the  new  hydroelectric  station  at  Gatun  spillway,  which,  by  furnishing  the  water 
to  the  turbines  from  Gatun  Lake,  will  drive  the  machinery  at  all  the  locks. 

makes  the  Chagres  River  a  most  important  factor  in  the  success  of  the  project, 
rather  than  a  torrential  stream  that  would  otherwise  be  a  menace  to  the  Canal. 
The  lake  has  a  coast  line  of  about  1,016  miles,  and  only  about  90  square  miles 

[  144] 


View  of  Gatun  Lake.  The  lake  is  formed  by  Gatun  Dam,  and  receives  the  flow  of  the  Chagres 
River,  and  several  smaller  streams.  At  its  maximum  height  of  87  feet,  it  will  inundate  167.4  square 
miles  of  territory,  part  of  which  lies  in  the  Canal  Zone,  and  part  in  the  Republic  of  Panama.  It 
will  have  a  coast  line  of  1,016  miles,  and  will  be  the  largest  artificial  body  of  water  in  the  world. 
It  covers  a  broad  expanse  from  Gatun  to  Bas  Obispo,  thence  is  confined  to  the  300-foot  channel 
in  the  Culebra  Cut  section  to  Pedro  Miguel.  During  the  dry  season — December  to  May — the  lake 
will  remain  about  stationary,  while  in  the  rainy  season,  there  will  be  a  surplus.  Thousands  of 
acres  of  trees  and  jungle  growth  are  being  inundated  by  the  rising  waters  of  the  lake. 


Floating  islands  in  Gatun  Lake.  These  are  really  masses  of  vegetation  detached  from  the 
swamps  by  the  rising  waters  and  carried  out  by  winds  into  the  open  water.  Some  of  them  cover 
half  an  acre  in  extent,  and  have  given  considerable  trouble  by  obstructing  the  lock  entrance. 

[  145  ] 


CTKD   Tv\N-D    piVIDED  -^~CTHE:  WO^kB-IJNJTED 

of  its  total  area  is  within  the  Canal  Zone.  In  the  rainy  seasons  the  lake  will 
be  allowed  to  rise  to  87  feet  above  sea  level,  and  thus  provide  a  surplus  for  the 
three  or  four  months  of  the  dry  season  when  the  run-off  of  water  in  the  Chagres 
basin  is  low.  Allowance  has  also  been  made  for  evaporation,  seepage,  leakage 
at  the  lock  gates,  and  power  consumption.  With  the  lake  at  87  feet  there  will 
be  stored  a  little  over  five  feet  of  water.  That  is,  the  lake  could  be  lowered 
five  feet  without  reducing  the  depth  through  Culebra  Cut  below  that  in  the 
approach  channel  on  the  Atlantic  side.  Extensive  studies  over  a  period  of 
many  years  of  the  rainfall  and  the  amount  of  water  that  will  flow  into  the 
lake  from  the  Chagres  River  and  its  tributaries  during  the  rainy  seasons 
indicate  that  there  will  always  be  a  sufficient  supply  for  navigation  of  the 
Canal. 

The  Chagres  River  rises  in  the  mountains  east  of  the  Canal,  is  about  160 
miles  long,  and  drains  a  watershed  1,320  square  miles  in  extent.  Above  Bas 
Obispo  its  rise  is  very  rapid  and,  as  it  ascends,  it  flows  through  deep  and  narrow 
gorges  causing  a  very  rapid  run-off  of  the  rains,  and  the  river  has  been  known 
to  rise  a  little  over  25  feet  in  24  hours.  As  it  winds  in  and  out  of  the  hills  in  its 
upper  reaches  rapids  become  more  numerous  and  difficult  for  the  passage  of 
the  native  cayucos  or  canoes,  the  only  means  of  navigation.     Going  up  the 


The  spillway  Gatun  with  the  sluice  gates  closed.     Locks  and  village  of  Gatun  in  the  distance. 

river  only  the  native  boatmen,  adept  from  long  practice  in  poling  their  boats, 
can  successfully  negotiate  the  rapids.  Above  Alhajuela,  the  river  is  bordered 
by  limestone  cliffs  into  which  the  water  has  for  ages  been  eating  its  way,  forming 
caves  and  underground  water  courses.  The  towering  cliffs  are  covered  with  a 
mass  of  vines  and  creepers  wound  about  the  trees,  which  have  in  some  way 
found  room  for  their  roots,  all  covered  with  bright  and  vari-colored  blossoms. 

[  H6  ] 


One  of  the  bends  in  the  upper  Chagres  River.  The  Chagres  is  the  principal  feeder  of  Gatun 
Lake.  It  rises  in  the  mountains  of  interior  Panama  and  drains  1,300  square  miles  of  territory. 
During  the  dry  season  it  is  a  quietly  flowing  stream,  but  in  the  rainy  months  it  is  subject  to  sud- 
den freshets,  bringing  down  a  great  volume  of  water,  which,  during  the  year  1910,  equaled  one 
and  one-half  the  volume  of  water  that  will  be  contained  in  Gatun  Lake. 


To  the  right  of  this  picture  is  shown  a  gauging  station,  one  of  three  maintained  on  the  river. 
Accurate  records  are  kept  of  the  river  stages  as  well  as  of  the  rain  fall.  The  Isthmus  has  two 
seasons;  wet  and  dry.  The  greatest  recorded  rain  fall  on  the  Isthmus  for  24  hours  is  10.86  inches; 
for  one  hour  5.86  inches  and  for  3  minutes  2.46  inches.  The  small  picture  above  shows  the  river 
during  one  of  the  floods. 

[  147  ] 


Excavating  for  lock  site,  Gatun. 


kbk^^^^HH^^Mtoa.. 

." 

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4*        ■*■ 

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Excavating  for  lock  site,  Pedro  Miguel. 


Excavating  for  lock  site,  Miraflores.     Millions  of  cubic  yards  of  material  had  to  be  excavated 

before  the  locks  were  built. 


[  148] 


CTHES  Jv\NP    DIVIDED C\-J\l^  WPEyfi  TINJTED 


The  swift  moving  river,  the  brilliant  tropic  foliage,  and  the  towering  cliffs,  all 
tend  to  belie  the  Isthmian  poet  Gilbert's  lines  that: 


"Beyond  the  Chagres  River 
'Tis  said  (the  story's  old), 

Are  paths  that  lead  to  mountains 

Of  purest  virgin  gold; 


But  'tis  my  firm  conviction, 
Whate'er  the  tales  they  tell, 
That  beyond  the  Chagres  River, 
All  paths  lead  straight  to  hell." 


The  Chagres  has  two  principal  branches,  one  (the  larger),  known  as  the 
Pequeni,  rising  in  the  San  Bias  mountains,  very  close  to  the  Atlantic  coast,  and 


It  was  necessary  to  go  17  miles  along  the  Atlantic  coast  to  get  the  proper  grade  of  rock  for  the 
concrete  used  in  Gatun  locks.  Large  rock  for  the  Colon  breakwater  was  also  obtained  here.  This 
shows  the  rock  quarry,  crushing  plant,  and  the  American  settlement  established  there  on  account 
of  quarry  operations.  The  crushed  rock  was  loaded  in  barges  and  towed  to  Gatun.  Sand  for  the 
concrete  used  at  Gatun  locks  was  obtained  at  Nombre  de  Dios,  about  35  miles  along  the  coast  from 
Colon,  and  was  also  towed  to  Gatun  in  barges.  Porto  Bello,  signifying  "Beautiful  Port,"  is  the 
best  haven  on  the  Atlantic  Coast  of  Panama. 

the  other  the  Indio  River.  Between  Bas  Obispo  and  Gatun,  it  has  26  branches, 
the  largest  of  which  are  the  Gatun  and  Trinidad  rivers.  In  the  dry  season 
these  tributaries  may  be  regarded  as  negligible,  but  during  the  rainy  months 
they,  like  the  main  river,  become  tropic  torrents,  with  a  volume  not  to  be  ignored. 
However,  such  floods  or  freshets,  which  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  rainy 
season,  would  have  but  slight  apparent  effect  on  the  lake,  for  it  would  take  the 
greatest  known  flood  of  the  Chagres  nine  hours  to  raise  the  level  of  the  lake  one 
foot.     The  smallest  run-off  of  water  in  the  basin  during  the  past  22  years,  as 

[  149  ] 


B  JyAND  .  DIVIDED  ^^Ta^^yO^^B,  UNJTED 


measured  at  Gatun,  was  that  of  the  fiscal  year  1912,  which  was  about  132  billion 
cubic  feet.  In  1910,  the  run-off  was  360  billion  cubic  feet,  or  a  sufficient 
quantity  to  fill  the  lake  one  and  a  half  times. 

The  rainy  season  is  from  May  to  December,  and  during  that  time  showers 
are  of  frequent  occurrence.  The  average  yearly  rainfall  on  the  Atlantic  coast 
at  Cristobal  during  40  years  of  record,  has  been  about  118  inches  and  at  Porto 
Bello  during  four  years'  record,  about  149  inches;  at  Culebra,  during  20  years 
of  record,  about  83  inches,  and  at  Ancon  on  the  Pacific  coast  during  a  period  of 
13  years,  about  66  inches.  The  maximum  rainfall  for  24  hours  was  10.86 
inches;  for  one  hour  .3.86  inches,  and  for  three  minutes,  2.46  inches. 

DAMS    ON    THE    PACIFIC    SIDE 

Pedro  Miguel  and  Miraflores  locks  occupy  the  ancient  valley  of  the  Rio 
Grande.     Here  it  was  necessary  to  construct  two  small  earth  dams,  one  on  the 


The  concrete  operations  at  Gatun  locks  required  modern  handling  machinery.  These  are  the 
unloading  cableways  at  Gatun  docks.  Rock  and  sand  are  picked  up  from  the  barges  by  clamshell 
buckets  and  conveyed  to  storage  piles. 

west  side  of  Pedro  Miguel  lock,  about  1,700  feet  long  and  105  feet  high  at  its 
crest;  and  the  other,  west  of  Miraflores  locks,  about  2,700  feet  long,  and  70 
feet  high  at  its  crest.  The  Miraflores  barrier  consists  of  earth  and  rock  toes, 
with  an  impervious  core  fill,  and  dams  the  Cocoli  River,  forming  Cocoli  Lake, 
now  a  part  of  Panama's  water  supply  system.  To  the  east,  both  Pedro  Miguel 
and  Miraflores  locks  approach  close  to  the  hills,  so  it  was  only  necessary  to  join 
locks  and  hills  by  concrete  walls. 

THE    LOCKS 

Under  the  original  plans,  the  flight  of  two  locks  at  Miraflores  was  to  have 
been  located  at  Sosa  Hill  near  the  Pacific  entrance.  The  change  was  made 
upon  the  recommendation  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  approved  on 
December  20,  1907,  by  the  President,  because  suitable  lock  and  dam  founda- 
tions could  not  be  found.     In   addition,   the  site  at  Miraflores  is  six  miles 

[  150  1 


Sand  bins  and  unloading  cranes  at  Balboa.  Sand  for  the  concrete  used  in  the  Pedro  Miguel 
and  Miraflores  locks  was  obtained  from  Punta  Chame,  about  25  miles  along  the  Pacific  coast  from 
Balboa.  It  was  towed  to  Balboa  in  barges,  lifted  into  the  bins  by  the  unloading  cranes  and  when 
needed  was  dumped  from  the  bins  into  cars  and  hauled  to  the  lock  storage  piles. 


Ancon  rock  crusher  plant  and  quarry,  between  Panama  City  and  Balboa,  where  the  crushed 
rock  was  obtained  for  the  concrete  used  in  the  Pacific  locks.  The  side  of  the  hill  has  been 
literally  eaten  away  to  secure  the  large  amount  of  rock  required. 

[  151   ] 


A  general  view  of  the  main  concrete  mixing  plant  at  Gatun  Locks,  which  houses  a  battery 
of  eight  2-cubic  yard  mixers.  Rock  and  sand  were  carried  to  the  mixers  by  an  electric  railroad 
running  underground  to  a  point  beneath  the  storage  piles.  The  finished  product  was  carried  to  the 
lock  site  by  a  surface  electric  railroad. 


A  closer  view  of  the  same  plant,  which  has  produced  as  high  as  3,434  cubic  yards  of 
concrete  in  a  day  of  12  hours,  working  6-hour  shifts. 


1 52 


CpKE;  Jv\ND   divided — q^\B  wo^k^JTINJTED 


inland  behind  hills  which  will  effectively  protect  them  from  the  fire  of  a  hostile 
fleet. 

The  locks  under  the  original  plans  were  to  have  a  usable  length  of  900  feet, 
width  of  95  feet,  and  a  depth  over  the  gate  sills  of  41^  feet.  These  dimensions 
were  increased  on  January  15,  1908,  in  compliance  with  the  wishes  of  the  Navy 
Department,  to  a  usable  length  of  1,000  feet  and  a  width  of  110  feet  in  order  to 
allow  the  passage  of  larger  battleships  at  that  time  contemplated.  The  height 
of  the  lock  walls  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  a  six-story  building.  The  largest 
of  the  present-day  ships,  the  Imperator,  919  feet  long,  can  be  locked  through  the 
canal.     However,  most  of  the  ships  that  will  use  the  Isthmian  trade  route,  or 


Eight  of  these  cableways,  four  on  each  bank,  were  used  to  place  the  concrete  in  the  lock 
walls.  They  consisted  of  steel  towers,  85  feet  high,  operating  on  their  own  tracks,  and  supported 
cables,  which  carried  the  concrete  buckets  back  and  forth. 

that  are  likely  to  use  it  for  many  years  to  come,  are  less  than  600  feet  long. 
In  fact,  95  per  cent,  of  the  vessels  navigating  the  high  seas  are  less  than  600  feet 
long.  For  this  reason,  each  lock  is  divided  by  intermediate  gates  into  two 
chambers  400  and  600  feet  long,  respectively.  This  does  not  mean  that  the 
full  length  of  1,000  feet  cannot  be  used  if  necessary,  but  with  this  division  a 
saving  in  both  water  and  time  can  be  made  in  the  locking  of  small  ships. 

There  are  six  double  locks  in  the  Canal,  three  flights  of  twin  locks  on  each 
side  of  the  Isthmus  to  lift  ships  from  sea  level  to  the  lake  level,  and  vice  versa. 
They  are  made  in  pairs,  in  order  that  ships  can  be  locked  both  up  and  down  at 
the  same  time,  and,  in  case  of  accident  to  one  set,  there  will  be  no  delay  to  traffic 
as  the  duplicate  flight  can  be  used.  The  usable  dimensions  of  all  are  the  same. 
Each  lock  is  a  concrete  chamber  with  steel  mitering  gates  at  each  end,  and  with 
the  gates  closed,  ships  are  raised  and  lowered  by  simply  admitting  or  withdraw- 
ing water.     The  side  walls  are  45  to  50  feet  wide  at  the  surface  of  the  floor, 

[  153  1 


This  view  shows  the  dumping  of  concrete  at  Gatun  Locks.  Every  move  of  the  bucket  is  at 
the  will  of  the  man  stationed  in  the  cableway  tower,  who,  in  dumping,  follows  the  signals  of  the 
man  supervising  the  operation.  As  fast  as  the  concrete  is  deposited,  men,  standing  knee  deep  in 
the  mixture,  spread  it  out  evenly. 


[  154 


CTHB  JvANP  .  DIVIDED  ~^ ^T^HEL^yOR^B,  TIKITgD 

perpendicular  to  the  face,  and  narrow  from  a  point  24|  feet  above  the  floor 
until  they  are  eight  feet  wide  at  the  top.  The  center  walls  are  60  feet  wide, 
approximately  81  feet  high,  and  each  face  is  vertical.  In  the  six  pairs  of  locks 
there  have  been  placed  approximately  4,500,000  cubic  yards  of  concrete,  re- 
quiring about  the  same  number  of  barrels  of  cement. 

In  the  center  wall  of  each  set  of  locks,  42J  feet  above  the  floor,  there  is  a 
space  19  feet  wide  at  the  bottom  and  44  feet  wide  at  the  top  in  which  there  is  a 
tunnel  divided  into  three  galleries.  The  lowest  gallery  is  for  drainage;  the 
middle,  for  the  wires  for  the  electric  current  to  operate  the  lock  machinery 


Sunday  scene  on  south  approach  wall  at  Gatun   Locks.     In  order  to  finish  a  piece  of  work 
within  a  given  time,  it  was  frequently  necessary  to  work  the  men  the  full  seven  days. 

installed  in  the  center  wall,  and  the  upper  is  a  passageway  for  the  operators. 
To  fill  and  empty  the  locks  there  are  culverts  extending  the  entire  length  of  the 
center  and  side  walls.  These  culverts  are  18  feet  in  diameter  and  are  large 
enough  to  permit  the  passage  of  a  railroad  train.  From  these  large  culverts 
there  are  several  smaller  culverts,  33  to  44  square  feet  in  area,  which  extend 
laterally  under  the  floor  of  the  locks  and  open  into  them  through  wells.  These 
smaller  culverts  would  permit  of  the  passage  of  a  two-horse  cart.  The  water 
is  conveyed  from  the  lake  level  through  the  large  culverts,  and  thence  through 
the  small  lateral  culverts  to  the  lock  chamber,  thus  insuring  an  even  distribution 
of  the  water  over  the  entire  area  of  the  chamber.  This  reduces  the  disturbance 
when  the  lock  is  being  filled  or  emptied,  so  that  ships  are  lifted  or  lowered 
without  undergoing  any  strain  or  violent  pitching.  The  flow  of  water  through 
the  culverts  is  controlled  by  valves.  The  large  culvert  in  the  center  wall  com- 
municates with  the  chamber  of  each  of  the  twin  locks,  so  that  water  may  be 
passed  from  one  lock  to  the  other  of  the  pair,  thereby  effecting  a  saving.  The 
average  time  required  to  fill  and  empty  a  lock  is  about  15  minutes,  and  the  time 

f  155  1 


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The  beginning  of  concrete  work  at  Gatun  Locks.  Laying  the  floor  and  installing  the  lateral 
culverts.  The  circular  holes  in  the  floor  are  to  admit  the  water  to  the  locks,  and  to  empty  them. 
The  floor  varies  in  thickness  from  13  to  20  feet  of  solid  concrete,  according  to  the  character  of 
material  underlying  it,  and  is  anchored  by  steel  rail  to  a  depth  of  10  feet. 


Installing  the  cylindrical  valves  for  the  control  of  the  flow  of  water  in  and  out  of  the  locks. 
The  water  control  system  of  the  locks  consists  of  rising  stem  or  Stony  gate  valves,  and  cylindrical 
valves.  The  rising  stem  valves  govern  the  flow  of  water  in  the  side  wall  culverts,  and  the 
cylindrical  valves  govern  the  flow  of  water  in  the  center  wall  culverts. 

[  156  ] 


J>AM-D    piVIDED cm&  WORk>D>  TTNJTEP 

of  passage  of  a  vessel  through  the  entire  canal  ranges  from  10  to  12  hours, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  ship,  and  the  rate  of  speed  at  which  it  can  travel. 

The  lock  gates  are  of  the  miter  type,  built  of  steel  frame  covered  with  steel 
plate,  65  feet  long  and  from  47  to  82  feet  high,  according  to  their  position  in  the 
locks.  In  all  there  are  41  gates  of  two  leaves  each.  These  gates  weigh  from 
390  to  730  tons  each,  and,  in  order  to  reduce  this  weight  as  much  as  possible 
from  the  bearings  and  hinges  upon  which  they  swing,  they  are  divided  hori- 
zontally into  two  separate  compartments.  The  lower  compartment  is  water- 
tight, sufficiently  buoyant  to  practically  float  in  the  water.  The  upper  half, 
however,  has  an  opening  and,  as  the  water  rises  in  the  chamber  it  flows  into  the 
upper  half  and  adds  sufficiently  to  the  weight  of  the  gate  to  offset  the  increased 
pressure  of  the  water  in  the  lock  chamber. 

The  machinery  for  opening  and  closing  the  gates,  operated  by  electricity, 
was  invented  by  Mr.  Edward  Schildhauer,  Electrical  and  Mechanical  Engineer 
of  the  canal  commission.  It  consists  of  a  large  "bull"  wheel,  mounted  in  a 
horizontal  position  on  the  lock  wall,  to  the  rim  of  which  is  fastened  a  steel  strut 
or  arm ;  this  arm  is  also  attached  to  the  top  of  each  gate  leaf.  The  wheel  rotates 
through  an  arc  of  197  degrees,  and  closes  or  opens  the  gate  leaf,  according  to  the 
direction  in  which  it  is  turned.  This  operation  can  be  performed  in  two  minutes, 
and  it  is  similar  to  the  action  of  a  person  who  reaches  out  an  arm  to  open  or 
close  a  door.  GUARDg  AGAIwr  ACCIDEXTS 

To  guard  against  accident,  the  gates  at  the  entrances  to  all  the  locks  and  at 
the  lower  end  of  the  upper  lock  in  each  flight  are  placed  in  pairs,  thus  eliminating 
the  chances  of  a  ship  ramming  the  gate  which  is  holding  back  the  water  of  the 
level  above.  These  guard  gates  miter  outward  to  give  them  added  power  to 
resist  any  blow  which  might  be  given  to  them.  They  are  also  available  for  use 
in  case  the  gates  proper  become  damaged,  or  for  any  reason  cannot  be  operated. 


Steel  forms  in  position  for  side  and  center  wall  construction.  They  are  made  of  sheet  steel, 
carried  on  movable  towers  and  operated  on  tracks.  Each  tower  and  form  weighs  almost  four 
and  one-half  million  pounds. 

[  157  1 


CTHB  TiANP    piVIDED- gTHB  WOgUD>  TTKITED 

Ships  will  not  be  allowed  to  enter  the  locks  under  their  own  steam,  but  will 
be  towed  through  by  electric  locomotives  operating  on  the  lock  walls.  A  ship 
about  to  enter  the  locks  will  first  come  to  a  standstill  alongside  the  approach  walls 
where  the  towing  locomotives,  two  on  each  wall,  two  forward  and  two  aft,  can 
attach  their  lines.     Before  the  ship  can  enter  a  lock  chamber  it  encounters  a 


Method  of  constructing  the  18-foot  side  wall  culverts.    Collapsible  steel  forms  were  used  and 
after  the  concrete  had  set,  were  taken  down  in  sections. 

fender  chain  which  has  been  placed  on  the  upstream  side  of  all  the  gates  of  the 
upper  locks,  and  in  front  of  the  guard  gates  at  the  lower  end  of  each  flight  of 
locks,  to  prevent  the  gates  from  being  rammed  by  a  ship  separated  from  the 
towing  locomotives,  or  approaching  the  gates  under  its  own  steam.  In  opera- 
tion the  chain  is  stretched  across  the  lock  chamber  from  the  top  of  the  opposing 
walls;  when  it  is  desired  to  allow  a  ship  to  pass,  the  chain  is  lowered  into  a 
groove  in  the  lock  floor,  and  is  raised  again  after  the  ship  passes.  It  is  worked 
by  a  hydraulically  operated  system  of  cylinders,  and  is  capable  of  bringing  to  a 
stop  a  10,000-ton  ship,  running  at  four  knots  an  hour,  within  73  feet,  which  is 
less  than  the  distance  between  the  chain  and  the  gate. 

In  case  these  precautions  to  prevent  accident  to  the  gates  fail,  or  in  case  it 
should  be  necessary  to  make  repairs  which  would  necessitate  the  shutting  off  of 
all  water  from  the  lake  levels,  an  emergency  dam  of  the  movable  type  has  been 
placed  above  each  flight  of  locks.  This  dam  is  a  steel  truss  bridge  of  the  canti- 
lever type,  pivoted  on  the  side  wall  of  the  lock  approach.  When  not  in  use  it 
rests  upon  the  side  wall  parallel  to  the  channel.     When  required  for  use  it  is 

[  158  J 


The  handling  equipment  used  at  Pedro  Miguel  and  Miraflores  locks  was  entirely  different  from 
that  at  Gatun.  At  Pedro  Miguel,  Berm  cranes,  containing  the  mixing  machinery,  were  stationed 
at  the  head  of  the  lock,  with  arms  extending  on  either  side,  from  which  grab  buckets  were 
lowered  to  pick  up  sand  and  rock,  as  the  case  might  be. 


The  finished  product  was  carried  by    these  trains  into  the  lock  chambers.     Many  of  the  old 
French  locomotives  were  repaired  and  used  for  this  work. 

[    159  ] 


The  Chamber  cranes,  shown  here,  lifted  the  buckets  of  cement  from  the  train  and  transported 
them  to  the  point  desired.  The  method  of  dumping  by  the  Chamber  cranes  is  very  similar  to 
that  of  the  Gatun  cableways,  the  operation  being  controlled  by  a  man  stationed  in  the  cage  on 
the  trolley  arm.  These  cranes  operated  on  tracks,  were  self-propelling,  and  were  used  to 
advantage  also  in  handling  heavy  pieces  of  lock  machinery. 


Berm  cranes  at  Miraflores  Locks.  With  the  completion  of  the  heavy  masonry  work  at  Pedro 
Miguel,  the  cranes  were  moved  to  Miraflores  Locks.  The  mixing  cranes  were  slightly  modified, 
and  were  stationed  on  the  banks  of  the  locks,  instead  of  at  the  head,  dumping  directly  into  the 
side  walls,  while  the  chamber  cranes  were  used  solely  for  center  wall  construction.  This  method 
eliminated  the  necessity  of  concrete  carrying  trains  to  a  large  extent. 

[  160  1 


CTHE,  TvANP.  DIVIDED -^CTIFLE:  WOBIjD)  TTNJTEP 


swung  across  the  channel,  with  its  end  resting  on  the  center  wall  of  the  lock.  A 
series  of  wicket  girders  hinged  to  it  are  then  lowered  with  their  ends  resting  in 
pockets  embedded  in  the  lock  floor.  The  action  of  these  girders  might  be 
compared  to  the  dropping  of  the  tines  on  a  sulky  rake,  with  the  exception  that 
the  girders  are  hung  on  individual  pivots.  After  these  girders  have  been 
lowered  into  place,  they  afford  runways  for  gates  which  are  let  down  one  at  a 
time,  closing  the  space  between  them. 
The  first  row  of  plates  lowered  close  the 
channel  to  a  height  of  10  feet;  another 
series  of  panels  lowered  brings  this  height 
to  20  feet,  and  so  on  until  the  channel  is 
completely  closed.  With  the  main  flow  of 
water  checked,  the  remainder,  due  to  the 
clearance  between  the  plates,  is  checked 
by  driving  steel  pipes  between  the  sides 
of  the  adjacent  panels. 

When  it  is  desired  to  gain  access  in  the 
dry  to  the  sills  of  these  emergency  dams, 
or  to  repair  the  lower  guard  gates  of  the 
locks,  and  the  gates  of  the  spillway  dam, 
floating  caisson  gates  of  the  molded  ship 
type  are  available.  When  their  use  is 
required  they  are  towed  into  position  in 
the  forebay  of  the  upper  lock,  above  the 
emergency  dam,  or  between  the  piers  of 
the  spillway,  and  sunk.  They  are  equip- 
ped with  electric  motor  driven  pumps  for  the  purpose  of  pumping  out  the 
caissons  and  for  unwatering  the  locks. 

The  gates,  fender  chains,  emergency  dams,  towing  locomotives,  and  cul- 
vert valves  are  operated  by  electricity,  and  all  but  the  towing  locomotives  will 
be  controlled  by  operators  stationed  in  a  control  house  on  the  center  wall  from 
which  all  parts  of  the  locks  can  be  seen.  These  houses  are  equipped  with  a 
double  control  board  duplicated  to  conform  to  the  duplication  in  locks.  It 
contains  a  representation,  part  model  and  part  diagrammatic  of  the  flight  of 
locks  controlled  by  the  respective  series  of  switches.  As  the  operator  throws 
the  switches  he  can  see  before  him,  in  model  or  diagram,  the  progress  of  the 
fender  chains,  the  movement  of  the  gates,  the  opening  and  closing  of  the  gate 


This  gives  an  idea  of  the  height  of  a 
side  wall  of  the  locks,  as  compared  -with 
a  six-story  building.  The  main  operating 
culverts  •will  permit  of  the  passage  of  a 
standard  size  locomotive  and  train  of  cars, 
while  a  team  and  wagon  could  travel 
through  the  lateral  culverts. 


CROSS  SECTION  OF  LOCK  CHAMBERS  AND  WALLS  OF  LOCKS 


A — Passageway  for  operators. 
B — Gallery  for  electric  wires. 
C — Drainage  gallery. 
D — Culvert  in  center  walls. 


E — These  culverts  run  under  the    F — Walls    opening   from   lateral 
lock  floor  and  alternate  with  culverts  into  lock  chamber, 

those  from  side  walls.  G — Culverts  in  sidewalls. 

H — Lateral  culverts. 

[  1G1   ] 


The  upper  picture  shows  the  intakes  in  the  walls  where  water  is  let  in  and  out  of  the  culverts. 
The  center  picture  gives  a  view  of  Gatun  locks  under  construction.  In  the  lower  picture  the 
square  concrete  building  in  the  distance  is  the  control  house  from  which  all  of  the  lock  oper- 
ating machinery  will  be  manipulated. 


I  162  ] 


CTHB   Tv\ND    piVIDED gTHK  WOWl^J.  UNITED 

valves,  and  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  water  in  the  lock  chambers.  The  system 
is  interlocking  so  that  certain  motors  can  not  be  started  in  a  certain  direction 
until  other  motors  are  operated  in  a  proper  manner. 

HOW    THE    LOCKS    WERE    BUILT 

One  of  the  most  interesting  sights  to  the  canal  visitor  during  the  time 
construction  work  was  in  progress  on  the  locks  was  the  working  of  the  concrete 
mixers  and  the  cableways  and  cranes,  now  dismantled,  which  carried  the  ma- 
terial to  the  point  where  it  was  to  be  poured. 

At  Gatun  locks,  where  2,043,763  cubic  yards  of  concrete  were  placed,  the 
assembling  and  the  distribution  of  the  material  was  done  by  means  of  industrial 


The  first  monolith  completed  at  Gatun  Locks  early  in  1910.  These  monoliths  are  huge 
blocks  of  concrete,  which  joined  together,  make  a  continuous  wall  almost  a  mile  long.  This  is 
one  of  the  outside  walls,  and  the  space  has  been  filled  in  with  earth  and  rock  level  with  the  top, 
where  you  now  see  the  steps. 

[  163  ] 


The  upper  picture  shows  a  view  looking  north  from  Miraflores  Locks.  Pedro  Miguel  Lock 
in  the  distance,  site  of  Miraflores  Lake  in  between.  Spillway  to  the  right,  temporary  bridge 
for  the  gate  contractors  to  the  left  of  picture.  The  center  picture  shows  a  view  looking  south 
from  the  same  lock,  Ancon  Hill  in  the  distance.  The  lower  picture  presents  a  busy  scene  at  the 
locks  when  the  gates  were  under  construction. 


[  104 


electric  railways  and  overhead  cableways.  From  the  docks  in  Cristobal,  the 
cement  was  carried  in  barges  up  the  old  French  canal,  which  had  been  deepened 
for  the  purpose,  to  a  cement  storage  dock  at  Gatun.  Rock  quarried  and  crushed 
at  Porto  Bello,  about  17  miles  east  of  Colon,  and  sand  dredged  at  Nombre  de 
Dios,  about  35  miles  east  of  Colon,  was  towed  in  barges  to  Gatun  docks.  This 
material  was  unloaded  by  overhead  cableways,  upon  which  grab  buckets  were 
hung,  and  carried  to  storage  piles.  The  material  was  then  assembled  in  the 
mixers  by  cars  operated  under  the  cement  shed  and  under  the  sand  and  rock 
storage  piles.  Another  electric  railway  carried  the  buckets  of  concrete  to  the 
bank  above  the  lock  sites.  At  this  point  the  full  buckets  were  lifted  from  the 
cars  by  cableways  stretched  across  the  lock  site  and  lowered  into  the  lock 
chamber  where  desired.     There  were  eight  of  the  cableways  arranged  in  pairs, 


The  lock  walls  as  a  whole  give  the  visitor  an  idea  of  massive  construction  only.  The  arched 
sections,  shown  in  the  picture,  connecting  the  main  walls  with  the  wing  and  guide  walls,  effect 
a  saving  in  concrete  and  also  give  a  symmetrical  touch  to  the  structures. 

each  pair  stretching  from  a  steel  tower  85  feet  high  to  a  similar  tower  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  locks,  a  distance  of  800  feet.  These  towers  were  placed  on 
trucks  on  which  they  could  be  moved  along  tracks  parallel  to  the  locks  to  the 
point  desired.  Besides  the  concrete,  the  cableways  also  handled  heavy  con- 
struction material,  such  as  steel  forms  and  lumber.  Their  capacity  was  six 
tons  each,  and  the  greatest  lift  170  feet  for  a  distance  of  670  feet. 

For  the  locks  at  the  Pacific  end  a  distinctly  different  system  was  employed. 
Placement  at  Pedro  Miguel  was  made  by  means  of  four  cantilever  cranes,  two 
resting  on  tracks  on  the  floor  of  each  lock  chamber,  and  two  berm  cranes  equip- 
ped with  two  2-cubic  yard  mixers  in  the  upper  forebay.  Each  of  the  chamber 
cranes  was  95  feet  high  with  cantilever  arms,  which  extended  to  both  sides  from 
the  center.     Placement  in  the  approach  and  wing  walls  was  made  by  means  of 

[  165  ] 


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[167] 


CTKE,  Tv\N-D    DIVIDED GTftE,  WORbD,  TTHITESD 

derricks,  which  lifted  the  buckets  from  concrete  trains  which  ran  between  the 
mixer  and  chamber  cranes. 

When  the  heavy  masonry  work  at  Pedro  Miguel  was  finished  the  chamber 
cranes  were  transferred  to  Miraflores,  and  operated  in  the  same  manner. 
The  berm  cranes  were  modified  in  order  that  they  might  be  operated  on  the 
sides  of  the  locks,  instead  of  at  the  head. 

The  crushed  stone  for  the  concrete  of  both  Pedro  Miguel  and  Miraflores 
locks  was  supplied  by  rail  from  a  large  quarry  and  crusher  plant  on  the  west 
side  of  Ancon  hill  near  Panama.  Sand  was  dredged  at  Punta  Chame,  on  Pana- 
ma Bay,  23  miles  west  of  Panama.  It  was  hauled  in  barges  to  Balboa  and  there 
unloaded  by  special  machinery  and  hauled  by  rail  to  the  storage  piles  at  the 
locks. 

MAKING    THE    DIRT    FLY 

The  work  of  excavation  in  the  canal  prism  was  divided  into  two  classes, 
"wet"  and  "dry,"  that  taken  out  by  means  of  dredges,  and  that  by  steam 
shovels,  respectively.  The  wet  excavation,  up  to  October  5,  1913,  when  water 
was  admitted   into   Culebra  Cut,   was  practically  confined  to  the  sea  level 


Section  of  the  north  guide  wall  at  Gatun  Locks  under  construction.  This  was  one  of  the  most 
difficult  pieces  of  masonry  work  in  the  whole  job.  The  greater  part  of  its  length  of  1,000  feet 
rests  upon  piles  driven  to  solid  rock.     To  the  right  is  seen  the  east  wing  wall  of  the  locks. 


approaches  to  the  Canal,  that  at  the  Atlantic  entrance  seven  miles  to  the  locks 
at  Gatun,  and  that  at  the  Pacific  entrance  8|  miles  to  the  locks  at  Miraflores. 
The  largest  part  of  the  excavation,  however,  was  accomplished  by  steam 
shovels  in  Culebra  Cut  prior  to  the  letting  in  of  the  water  of  Gatun  Lake  and  in 
the  Chagres  section.  There  remained  on  September  1,  about  9,153,000  cubic 
yards  of  spoil  in  Culebra  Cut,  out  of  a  total  of  95,869,000  cubic  yards.  The 
total  excavation,  "wet"  and  "dry"  for  the  entire  canal,  as  originally  estimated 
by  the  minority  members  of  the  Board  of  Consulting  Engineers,  was  103,795,000 
cubic  yards,  in  addition  to  the  amount  excavated  by  the  French  companies, 

[  168  ] 


Entrance  to  Gatun  Locks  from  the  lake.  Gatun  Dam  on  the  left  and  approach  wall  in  the 
foreground.  Approach  walls  1,000  feet  long,  have  been  built  at  each  end  of  all  the  locks,  and  as 
the  name  indicates,  they  serve  as  a  guide  to  ships  coming  up  the  approach  channel.  Ships  must  come 
to  a  stop  at  these  walls,  until  the  locomotives  which  tow  them  through  the  locks  make  fast 
their  lines. 


View  of  the  upper  gates  at  Miraflores  Locks  under  construction.  The  first  of  these  is  com- 
pleted and  partly  swung  open  to  full  view  giving  an  idea  of  their  thickness.  The  gates  are 
operated  by  electricity  and  may  be  opened  or  closed  in  one  minute  and  47  seconds. 

[  169  ] 


LES  J^AMD    pIVIDED  —CTVl&  WORIjB>>  TTKITED 

who  accomplished  29,708,000  cubic  yards  useful  under  the  present  plans.  This 
estimate  has  been  increased  several  times  on  account  of  changes  in  the  canal 
plans,  to  silting  in  the  canal  entrances  and  in  the  Chagres  section,  to  slides  in 
Culebra  Cut,  for  the  terminals  at  both  entrances,  and  for  the  dry  docks  at 
Balboa.  The  last  estimate  made  on  July  1,  1913,  places  the  grand  total  at 
232,353,000  cubic  yards,  considerably  more  than  double  the  amount  originally 
estimated.  When  the  canal  is  entirely  completed,  the  excavated  material 
would  make  a  line  of  63  pyramids,  each  equal  in  size  to  the  Great  Pyramid 
of  Egypt. 

DREDGING 

Most  of  the  work  in  the  Atlantic  entrance,  about  53,167,000  cubic  yards, 
was  accomplished  by  two  elevator  dredges  left  by  the  French,  and  overhauled 
by  the  Americans,  a  dipper  dredge  of  American  make,  and  a  sea-going  20-inch 


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pTi  ft|P: 

Completed  sills  from  the  lock  gates.     These  sills,  built  of  steel  and  concrete,  form 
foundations  on  which  the  gates  rest. 


suction  dredge,  also  made  in  the  United  States.  Where  the  channel  ran  inside 
the  shore  line  two  small  hills  were  dug  out  by  steam  shovels  to  a  depth  of  41 
feet,  and  the  remainder  then  accomplished  by  the  dredges. 

In  the  Pacific  entrance  about  61,489,000  cubic  yards  was  accomplished  by 
two  elevator  dredges  of  the  Belgian  type  and  two  Scotch  elevator  dredges  left 
by  the  French  and  overhauled  by  the  Americans,  a  modern  elevator  dredge 
built  in  Scotland  in  1911,  and  a  sea-going  20-inch  suction  dredge.  This  latter 
dredge  was  floated  into  Culebra  Cut  in  October,  1913,  and  is  now  at  work 
taking  out  the  remaining  spoil  in  that  section.  In  the  Pacific  entrance  a  large 
quantity  of  rock  was  encountered  which  was  too  hard  for  the  dredges  to  handle. 

[  170  1 


The  gates  under  construction  at  Pedro  Miguel.  The  lock  gates,  46  in  number,  two  leaves  to 
each  gate,  constitute  one  of  the  spectacular  features  of  Canal  construction.  They  are  7  feet  thick, 
from  47  to  82  feet  high,  and  each  leaf  or  half  gate  weighs  from  300  to  700  tons.  They  are  built  up 
of  great  horizontal  girders  weighing  from  12  to  18  tons  each,  with  vertical  frame  work  in  between, 
sheathed  with  steel  plates  on  each  side. 


Near  view  of  the  massive  lock  gates  showing  riveting  gang  on  scaffold.  The  lower  part  of 
each  gate  is  an  air  chamber,  so  that  in  using  it,  the  gate  is  buoyed  up  by  the  surrounding  water, 
reducing  the  weight  on  its  hinges,  and  making  it  easier  to  move.  To  overcome  the  lifting  effect 
when  the  lock  chamber  is  full  of  water,  the  upper  half  has  openings  on  the  up-stream  side  which 
allows  it  to  automatically  fill  or  empty,  thus  equalizing  the  weight. 

[   171   } 


gmg  T^S^P  .DiyiDEp^^gT^FiB  WOD^D,  TIKITED 

To  break  up  this  material,  in  addition  to  subaqueous  blasting,  a  Lobnitz  sub- 
aqueous rock  breaker  was  used. 

CUTTING    THROUGH    THE    DIVIDE 

The  part  of  the  canal  on  which  the  most  work  has  been  done,  and  which 
was  the  last  to  be  completed,  is  Culebra  Cut,  the  9-mile  section  through  the 
continental  divide.  Work  has  been  nearly  continuous  in  this  section  since  the 
French  started  operations  in  1882.  It  is  also  one  of  the  most  important  and  in- 
teresting portions  of  the  Canal  project  on  account  of  the  deep  cutting  necessary, 
and  the  difficulties  encountered  on  account  of  slides  and  the  disposal  of  spoil. 
When  the  Americans  took  over  the  work  in  May,  1904,  they  found  the  French 
engaged  in  taking  out  just  sufficient  material  to  hold  their  concession.     This 


Close  view  of  completed  gates  at  Gatun  Locks.  There  are  46  gates  in  the  locks  which 
aggregate  58,000  tons  in  weight,  and  if  placed  end  on  end  would  make  a  tower  about  one  and 
one-fifth  miles  high.  The  author  was  standing  on  the  lock  floor  between  the  partly  closed  gates 
■when  this  photograph  was  taken. 

they  were  doing  with  a  few  obsolete  side  excavators,  served  by  small  Decauville 
dump  cars  and  Belgian  engines. 

Work  was  continued  with  the  equipment  left  by  the  French  until  it  could 
be  gradually  replaced  with  modern  steam  shovels,  cars  and  engines.  The  first 
steam  shovel  was  placed  in  operation  on  November  11,  1904,  and  the  last  of  the 
French  excavators  was  discontinued  on  June  16,  1905.  On  August  1,  1905, 
there  were  11  steam  shovels  at  work,  but  they  were  greatly  handicapped  in  their 
output  as  they  were  served  by  old  French  cars  operated  on  lines  which,  as  Chief 
Engineer  Stevens  said:  "By  the  utmost  stretch  of  the  imagination  could  not 
be  called  railroad  tracks."  Work  was  practically  stopped  until  proper  prepa- 
rations could  be  made  for  handling  the  spoil  and  effecting  an  organization  which 
would  obtain  the  greatest  possible  results  from  the  use  of  modern  methods  of 


This  illustrates  the  size  to  which  even  the  smaller  features  of  gate  construction  attain,  as  well 
as  the  care  taken  in  their  manufacture.  This  steel  yoke,  made  of  vanadium,  is  used  to  connect 
the  tops  of  the  gates  with  the  anchors  in  the  walls.  It  weighs  14,000  pounds,  and  was  subjected 
to  a  stress  of  3,300,000  pounds  before  it  broke. 


The  operating  mechanism  of  a  lock  gate.  The  Wheel  is  a  bull  wheel,  which,  in  operating, 
turns  through  an  arc,  giving  the  connecting  rod  the  movement  of  an  arm  in  opening  and  shutting 
a  door.     It  is  19  feet  in  diameter,  and  weighs  over  35,000  pounds. 

[  173  ] 


CTHE  Tv\N-D  .  DIVIDED  — ^THB  WOELkD ^TNITED 

excavation.  Tracks  were  properly  laid,  a  proper  transportation  system  in- 
augurated, and  proper  dumping  places  located  before  the  work  was  resumed 
on  a  large  scale  in  1907.  In  that  year  9,177,130  cubic  yards  were  taken  out, 
and  from  that  time  to  when  the  maximum  of  16,596,891  cubic  yards  was  reached 
in  1911,  there  was  a  steady  increase  in  the  amount  of  material  excavated  as  new 


Side  view  of  emergency  dam  on  east  wall  at  Gatun  Locks.  In  case  an  accident  occurred  to 
the  gates,  allowing  a  free  passage  of  water  from  the  85-foot  lake  level,  to  the  sea  level,  the  dam 
would  be  swung  across  the  lock  chamber  and  a  series  of  wicket  girders  hinged  to  it  would  be 
lowered  with  their  ends  resting  in  pockets  in  the  lock  floor.  Steel  gates  would  then  be  let  down, 
one  at  a  time,  which  would  close  the  lock  chamber  and  check  the  flow  of  water. 

equipment  was  installed.  Trains  of  flat  and  dump  cars,  20  to  a  train,  drawn 
by  100-ton  locomotives  carried  the  spoil  to  be  used  in  the  dam  at  Gatun,  the 
breakwater  at  the  Pacific  entrance,  fills,  or  to  dumps  where  it  was  merely 
wasted.  As  the  Cut  neared  completion,  the  work  became  concentrated  in  a 
short  section  at  Culebra  where  the  deepest  cutting,  272  feet,  was  necessary,  and 
the  number  of  steam  shovels  had  to  be  gradually  reduced. 

To  prevent  the  flooding  of  the  Cut,  the  canal  channel  was  paralleled  on  each 
side  from  Gold  Hill  north  to  Bas  Obispo,  a  distance  of  five  miles,  by  small 
canals  or  diversions,  which  carried  into  the  Chagres  River  the  water  from 
streams  that  otherwise  would  have  flowed  into  the  Cut  and  interrupted  the  work. 
To  prevent  the  water  in  Gatun  Lake  from  backing  up  into  the  cut  the  earthen 
dike  which  was  blown  up  on  October  10,  1913,  was  built.  To  the  south  of 
Gold  Hill  the  water  which  would  have  flooded  the  Cut  was  carried  off  by  the 
Rio  Grande  and  an  old  French  diversion  channel.  Rain  water  that  collected 
in  the  Cut  flowed  north  and  south.  At  Gamboa,  on  the  north,  it  was  pumped 
through  the  dike,  and  at  Pedro  Miguel,  to  the  south,  it  drained  off  through  the 
lock  wall  culverts. 

All  steam  shovel  work  in  the  Cut  was  discontinued  on  September  1.5,  and 
between  that  date,  and  October  5,  1913,  when  water  was  admitted,  all  equip- 
ment and  other  material,  including  over  36  miles  of  construction  track,  was 
removed.  At  that  time  there  were  about  30  steam  shovels  at  work.  The 
following  table  of  material  excavated  in  the  Cut  and  for  the  whole  canal,  indi- 
cates the  period  of  preparatory  work,  the  time  when  the  highest  point  of  effi- 

[  174  ] 


Section  of  lock  wall  showing  the  rack  rail  over  which  the  towing  locomotives  travel. 


Towing  locomotive  in  operation  at  Gatun  Locks.  These  machines  are  designed  to  tow 
vessels  through  the  locks.  There  will  be  two  locomotives  ahead  towing,  and  two  astern  to 
retard  the  vessel's  progress  if  required.  In  towing,  they  'will  not  move  faster  than  two  miles  an 
hour,  but  a  second  or  return  track,  permits  them  to  go  back  at  greater  speed. 

[  175  ] 


CTHB  Tv\NP    DIVIDED  — CTHB  WO£jyD>  TTKITED 

ciency  was  reached,  and  when  the  work  became  concentrated  in  the  short 
section  of  Culebra  Cut  as  the  other  sections  neared  completion: 


CULEBRA    CUT. 

Year  Cubic  Yards 

1904 243,472 

1905 1,167,628 

1906 2,702,991 

1907 9,177,130 

1908 13,912,453 

1909 14,557,034 

1910 15,398,599 

1911 16,596,891 

1912 15,028,413 

1913  (to  Sept.  10) 8,348,190 

Totals .97,132,801 


ENTIRE    CANAL. 

Year  Cubic  Yards 

1904 243,472 

1905 1,799,227 

1906 4,948,497 

1907 15,765,290 

1908 37,116,735 

1909 35,096,166 

1910 31,437,677 

1911 31,603,899 

1912 30,269,349 

1913  (to  Sept.  1) 20,937,718 

209,218,030 


Two  makes  of  steam  shovels  were  used  in  the  excavation  work,  the  Bucyrus 
and  Marion,  of  45,  66,  70,  90  and  105  tons,  equipped  with  dippers  ranging  in 
capacity  from  If  cubic  yards  to  5  cubic  yards.     In  Culebra  Cut,  shovels  with 


These  models  of  Pedro  Miguel  Lock  give  a  good  idea  of  how  ships 
will  enter  and  pass  through  the  locks. 

[   176  ] 


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[177] 


CTHE,  TvAN-D  .  DIVIDED  ^>CTHE  WOUkD>  TTKITED 

5-yard  dippers  were  used  almost  entirely,  and  a  shovel  thus  equipped  averaged 
about  1,800  cubic  yards  per  8-hour  day.  A  cubic  yard  of  earth  and  rock  weighs 
about  3,600  pounds,  and  represents  about  a  two-horse  cart  load.  The  work 
done  by  the  steam  shovels  would  dig  a  canal  55  feet  wide  and  10  feet  deep 
from  Maine  to  Oregon. 

In  transporting  material  to  the  dumping  grounds  three  classes  of  cars  were 
used — Lidgerwood  flat  cars  with  one  high  side  with  a  capacity  of  19  cubic 
yards,  and  Oliver  and  Western  side  dump  cars,  large  and  small,  having  a 
capacity  of  17  and  10  cubic  yards,  respectively.  To  haul  trains  composed  of 
20  flat  cars,  27  large  dump  cars,  or  35  small  dump  cars,  American  locomotives 
were  used.  These  trains  would  make  an  average  of  1|  trips  daily  to  the  dumps, 
an  average  distance  one  way  of  11  miles.  The  average  time  consumed  in 
unloading  a  train  of  flat  cars  at  the  dumps  was  from  seven  to  15  minutes.     This 


Boat  landing  at  Gatun.     The  structure  on  concrete  piles  to  the  right  is  a  wharf  where  small 
boats  that  ply  the  lake  may  land  their  cargoes,  when  the  lake  is  to  its  full  height. 

was  accomplished  by  the  use  of  what  was  known  as  an  unloading  plow.  The 
large  dump  cars  were  operated  by  compressed  air  from  the  locomotive,  while 
the  small  dump  cars  were  operated  by  hand,  and  the  time  consumed  in  unload- 
ing was  from  6  to  55  minutes. 

The  constant  arrival  of  spoil  trains  on  the  dumping  grounds  made  necessary 
a  quick  method  of  changing  the  construction  tracks.  This  necessity  led  to  the 
invention  by  W.  G.  Bierd,  formerly  superintendent  of  the  Panama  Railroad,  of 
a  track  shifting  machine.  This  machine  consists  of  a  boom,  extending  from 
a  flat  car  out  over  the  track  in  advance  of  the  car,  to  which  a  block  and  tackle 
is  attached  by  which  the  track  is  lifted  from  its  bed.  Another  boom  extending 
from  the  car  at  an  angle  with  the  main  boom  pulls  the  track  to  one  side  or  the 
other.  In  this  way  track  may  be  thrown  nine  feet  from  its  original  position  in 
one  operation. 

In  addition  to  the  unloading  plow  and  the  track  shifter  for  the  rapid  hand- 
ling of  spoil,  there  was  also  used  a  machine  to  spread  the  material  on  the  dump 

[   178  ] 


CTHB   hAN-P    piVIDED-^-CT^jJELJ^O^J^P)_XJNJTED 

and  keep  them  in  a  uniformly  level  condition.  This  spreader  consists  of  a  car 
on  which  has  been  placed  a  machine  with  steel  wings,  and  it  works  exactly  like 
an  electric  snow  plow  on  the  city  streets  in  the  United  States,  with  the  exception 
that  the  wings  are  operated  with  compressed  air  obtained  from  the  locomotive 
which  hauls  the  car  over  the  dump.  With  a  perfect  organization,  modern 
equipment,  a  well  planned  system  of  transportation,  and  the  rapid  disposal  of 
the  spoils  on  the  dumps,  the  maximum  possible  output  of  the  steam  shovels  was 
obtained  and  maintained,  and  many  world  records  were  made  on  the  Isthmus 
in  excavation  work. 

ACROSS    THE    ISTHMUS    IX    A    HYDROBIPLAXK 

Several  attempts  have  been  made  during  the  past  few  years  to  cross  the 
Isthmus  in  a  heavier  than  air  flying  machine,  but  none  were  successful  until 
April  27,  1913,  when  Robert  G.  Fowler,  the  aviator,  accompanied  by  R.  A. 
Duhem,  photographer  left  the  Pacific  entrance  to  the  Canal  at  10  a.  m.,  and 
arrived  at  Cristobal  Point  on  the  Atlantic  side  at  10:57  a.  m.  The  route  of  the 
canal  was  followed  closely,  the  aviator  making  a  circle  at  Culebra,  in  order  to 
obtain  views  of  all  parts  of  Culebra  Cut.  The  highest  altitude  attained  during 
the  flight  was  1,800  feet;  the  lowest  height  at  which  the  machine  flew  was  400 
feet.  The  President  has  since  signed  an  Executive  Order  prohibiting  further 
flights  over  the  Canal,  or  to  take  photographs  from  a  flying  machine,  without 
written  authority  of  the  Chief  Executive  of  the  Canal  Zone. 


Robert  G.  Fowler's  hydrobiplane  passing 
over  Culebra  Cut.  Empire  suspension  bridge 
in  foreground.     A  rare  picture. 


Crossing  the  Locks  at  Gatun  on  a  bucket 
operated  by  the  cableways. 


[  179  ] 


CTH&  T^AN-D  .  DIVIDED  —  crpHE:  WORUD,  JV. 

"On  they  struggled,  ever  onward, 

Blasting  stone,  and  earth  and  men; 
Filling  rivers  with  razed  mountains; 

Filling  graves  with  parts  of  men. 
Blood  and  bone  are  mixed  with  concrete, 

Sweat  of  brow  and  grime  of  toil 
Mark  the  rough-neck  as  he  swelters, 

Weary  'mid  the  grease  and  oil. 
Weary  flesh,  nor  fever's  terrors 

Halt  them  as  they  onward  go. 
Forward !     Forward !     Ever  Forward ! 

Is  the  only  cry  they  know." 

— John  Hall. 


SEVENTY    MILLION    POUNDS    OF    DYNAMITE 

The  greater  part  of  the  material  excavated  by  the  Americans  in  Culebra 
Cut  before  the  dredges  were  introduced  consisted  of  hard  rock,  and  it  was 
necessary  to  drill  and  blast  it  before  it  could  be  handled  by  the  steam  shovels. 
About  50,000,000  pounds,  out  of  a  total  of  about  70,000^000  pounds  for  the 
entire  Canal  was  used.     When  it  is  considered  that  nearly  three  cubic  yards  of 


*-7*v< 


1       '.  rr'i,';-'*v*x 


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■*fc- 


^\: 


The  scene  of  a  premature  explosion  of  nearly  22,000  pounds  of  dynamite  at  Bas  Obispo, 
December  12,  1908.  About  50  men  were  injured  and  26  were  killed,  among  them  being  three 
Americans.  Blasting  operations  are  conducted  with  great  care,  and  the  heavy  shots  are  usually 
fired  off  after  the  men  have  quit  work  for  the  day,  although  several  of  these  premature  ex- 
plosions have  occurred. 

[  180] 


Laborers  loading  well-drill  holes  with  dynamite  near  Contractor's  Hill.  A  small  charge  is 
first  exploded,  enlarging  the  hole  at  the  bottom.  Then  the  main  charge,  usually  consisting  of 
from  75  to  200  pounds  is  placed,  and  exploded  by  means  of  an  electric  light  wire. 


A  group  of  tripod  drills  at  work.    Churn  drills  are  used  also.     All  drills  are  operated  by  compressed 
air  supplied  through  mains,  and  an  average  of  75  miles  of  drill  holes  is  sunk  each  month. 

[  181    1 


CTHB  Tv\ND    DIVIDED crn&  WOI5LkD>  TTKITED 


Twelve  of  these  magazines  for  storing  dynamite  are 
located  at  convenient  points  along  the  Canal. 


material  are  blasted  for  each  pound  of  explosive  used,  the  important  part  dyna- 
mite has  played  in  canal  construction  can  be  readily  seen.  Blasting  powder 
was  not  used  to  a  great  extent  due  to  excessive  moisture  and  water  in  the  holes. 
In  order  to  keep  the  steam  shovels  going  at  capacity,  it  was  necessary  to 
blast  large  areas  at  a  time  and  as  much  as  26  tons  of  dynamite  was  used  at  one 
time.     In  the  use  of  such  large  quantities  of  high  explosive  there  have  naturally 

been  many  serious  accidents 
although  extreme  care  was 
taken  in  the  handling.  The 
most  serious  accident  oc- 
curred in  the  Cut  at  Bas 
Obispo  on  December  12, 
1908,  when  there  was  a  pre- 
mature explosion  of  nearly 
22,000  pounds  placed  in  52 
of  the  53  holes  it  was  in- 
tended to  explode.  The 
powder  gang  was  working 
on  the  last  hole  when  the 
entire  charge  for  some  un- 
known reason  went  off. 
The  result  was  appalling. 
Twenty-six  men  were  killed, 
among  them  being  three  Americans,  and  some  50  injured,  many  of  them 
seriously.  There  had  been  a  premature  explosion  of  26  tons  a  few  months 
previous,  May  22,  1908,  in  the  Chagres  section  of  the  Canal,  which  is  supposed 
to  have  been  caused  by  lightning.  There  were  few  casualties,  however, 
although  there  were  many  narrow  escapes  as  several  hundred  men  were  in  the 
immediate  vicinity.  The  thing  most  dreaded  by  the  steam  shovel  men,  with 
the  possible  exception  of  a  sudden  slide  of  rock,  was  the  chance  of  the  shovel 
digging  into  a  charge  of  dynamite  which  had  failed  to  explode.  An  accident 
of  this  nature  occurred  in  the  Cut  on  October  8,  1908,  with  the  result  that  five 
of  the  shovel  crew  were  killed  and  several  injured.  A  few  days  later  another 
premature  explosion  of  over  24,000  pounds  in  154  holes  caused  the  death  of 
eight  men.  This  latter  accident  was  also  attributed  to  the  action  of  lightning 
upon  the  wires  which,  although  con- 
nected with  the  holes,  were  not  carry- 
ing any  electric  current  at  the  time. 
To  prevent  such  accidents  as  much 
as  possible,  many  lectures  and  dis- 
cussions were  held  from  time  to  time 
among  the  employes  engaged  in  the 
handling,  storage,  etc.,  of  explosives. 
Representatives  of  the  Nemours-Du- 
Pont  Powder  Company,  which  sup- 
plied a  large  part  of  the  blasting 
material,  explained  the  making  of 
dynamite,  the  right  method  of  hand- 
ling, and  its  action  under  certain 
known  conditions.    As  a  result  of  these 


A  giant  blast  in  Culebra  Cut. 


[  182  ] 


CTHB  TvANP    DIVIDED q^E  WOCLkD,  TTKITED 

discussions,  it  was  decided  to  use  a  high  amperage  current  from  an  electric  light 
plant  in  exploding  charges  of  more  than  a  dozen  holes,  instead  of  by  the  use  of 
storage  batteries.  Under  the  latter  method,  with  the  holes  wired  in  series,  in- 
stead of  in  parallel,  there  was  no  certainty  that  all  the  holes  had  exploded  after 
the  current  was  turned  on.  In  addition  to  the  use  of  a  strong  current,  the  holes 
were  placed  closer  together,  in  order  that  the  detonation  from  a  nearby  hole 
would  explode  those  which  would  otherwise  have  failed  to  go  off.  Stringent 
rules  and  regulations  for  the  handling,  storage  and  use  of  dynamite  were  also 
introduced  and  enforced  to  minimize  the  danger.  But  no  rules  or  regulations 
could  prevent  all  accidents  without  cooperation  of  the  men  engaged  on  the 
work.  This  impossibility  was  forcibly  demonstrated  in  the  case  of  a  Spanish 
laborer  who,  becoming  impatient  at  the  slowness  of  a  negro  helper,  started  to 
knock  the  .cover  off  of  a  box  of  blasting  caps  with  a  machete.  It  is  hardly 
necessary  to  say  that  he  did  not  complete  the  work  assigned  to  him. 


iflHHMpBHSUHB 


w/P*  * 


In  dredging  operations,  subaqueous  or  under  water  blasting  is  employed.     Drill  boats, 
like  the  one  in  the  picture,  sink  the  holes  in  connection  with  this  work. 

In  making  the  necessary  holes  for  the  charges,  tripod  and  well  drills,  ob- 
taining their  power  from  a  compressed  air  main,  were  used.  At  one  time  there 
were  as  many  as  377  of  these  drills  at  work  in  the  Cut,  and  they  were  operated  in 
batteries  of  from  four  to  12  drills.  The  usual  depth  of  the  hole  drilled  was  about 
27  feet,  placed  about  14  feet  apart,  and  if  all  the  drill  holes  necessary  for  the 
work  were  placed  end  to  end,  they  would  equal  the  length  of  the  earth's  diam- 
eter from  pole  to  pole  with  1,500  miles  added.  After  the  holes  had  been  drilled 
they  were  widened  at  the  bottom,  or  "sprung,"  by  a  small  charge  being  exploded 
in  them.  After  sufficient  time  had  elapsed  to  allow  the  holes  to  cool,  they  were 
charged  and  wired.  All  blasting  took  place  after  the  men  had  left  the  work  for 
lunch  or  in  the  evening  and  at  those  times  a  naval  engagement  could  be  easily 
imagined  by  those  living  anywhere  in  the  vicinity.  At  Porto  Bello,  where  much 
powder  was  used  in  the  quarrying  of  rock  a  series  of  blasts  took  place  at  one 
time  when  a  British  war  vessel  was  passing  close  to  the  entrance  of  the  harbor. 
Hearing  what  was  thought  to  be  the  discharge  of  an  Admiral's  salute,  the  cruiser 
returned  the  supposed  courtesy  by  dipping  its  flag. 

[  183  ] 


In  the  Pacific  entrance  dynamite  was  employed  in  subaqueous  blasting, 
two  drill  barges  being  used  to  make  the  necessary  holes.  In  addition  to  break- 
ing up  hard  material  for  the  dredges  in  this  section,  the  use  of  dynamite  under 
water  kept  many  of  those  employed  in  the  vicinity  supplied  with  fresh  fish  for 
some  time.  Those  whose  employment  necessitated  their  going  out  in  boats 
considered  themselves  particularly  fortunate.  On  one  occasion,  a  private  mess 
of  Canal  employes  was  kept  supplied  with  fish  as  long  as  such  a  diet  could  be 
endured  by  its  members. 

SLIDES ELOQUENT    ARGUMENT    AGAINST    SEA    LEVEL    PROJECT 

The  greatest  difficulty  in  the  excavation  of  Culebra  Cut  has  been  caused  by 
slides  which  have  from  time  to  time  precipitated  great  masses  of  earth  and  rock 
into  the  Canal  prism  burying  steam  shovels  and  dirt  trains,  tearing  up  dirt 
train  tracks,  and  closing  up  the  drainage  ditch.     There  have  been  22  slides  and 

These  have  added 


Dreaks  at  different  times  covering  from  one  to  75  acres 


Towing  dynamite  to  the  drill  boat  Teredo. 


about  25,000,000  cubic  yards,  or  about  one-quarter  of  the  estimated  total  of 
excavation  necessary  in  the  Cut.  The  largest  and  most  troublesome  of  these  is 
the  Cucaracha  slide  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Cut  at  Culebra,  which  started  in 
1887  when  the  French  were  at  work.  When  the  Americans  started  operations 
in  1905,  this  slide  again  became  active  and,  as  the  Cut  deepened  at  this  point, 
it  continued  to  develop.  Gold  Hill  presents  a  solid  rock  face  482  feet  above 
the  Canal  bottom  between  Cucaracha  slide  and  a  slide  immediately  north. 
These  two  slides  have  broken  so  far  back  that  the  slope  on  their  outer  edges 
is  away  from  the  Canal.  This  has  led  to  the  introduction  of  hydraulic  monitors 
which  are  engaged  in  sluicing  the  material  from  the  top  of  the  slides  into  the 
valley  in  the  rear  of  Gold  Hill,  in  order  to  reduce  the  pressure  from  above. 
Another  serious  slide  occurred  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Canal  at  Culebra  covering 
an  area  of  75  acres,  and  necessitating  the  removal  of  about  10,000,000  cubic 
yards  of  material.  This  slide  made  necessary  the  removal  of  many  buildings 
of  the  village  of  Culebra  which  were  situated  near  the  edge  of  the  Cut. 

There  are  two  classes  of  slides.  One,  similar  to  Cucaracha,  is  caused  by 
the  slipping  of  clay  and  earth  on  a  smooth  sloping  surface  of  a  harder  material. 
The  other,  commonly  called  a  "break,"  similar  to  the  one  which  involved  the 

[  1S4  ] 


CTHE,  Tv\N-D  .  DIVIDED crn&  WORLD,  JTNITgD 

village  at  Culebra,  is  caused  by  the  steepness  of  the  slope  and  the  great  pressure 
of  the  superincumbent  material  upon  the  underlying  layers  of  softer  material. 

Besides  sluicing,  steam  shovels  excavated  a  great  amount  of  material  from* 
the  tops  to  relieve  the  pressure,  and  the  Cut  was  terraced  to  prevent  a  part  of  the 
material  in  the  slides  from  going  over  into  the  Canal  prism.  Many  schemes  were 
proposed  to  prevent  slides,  one,  the  use  of  a  cement  gun  to  spray  the  sides  of  the 
Cut  where  the  mass  of  stone  became  brittle  and  crumbled  on  exposure  to  the 
air,  but,  as  Colonel  Gaillard  said  in  November,  1912:  "The  only  successful 
method  of  treating  the  slides  or  breaks,  once  the  material  is  in  motion,  is  to  dig 


A  subaqueous  blast  in  progress  in  the  Pacific  entrance  to  the  Canal.     As  high  as  10,000 
pounds  of  dynamite  are  shot  off  in  a  single  blast  of  this  kind. 

it  out  and  haul  it  away  until  the  slide  comes  to  rest  upon  reaching  the  angle 
of  repose  for  the  particular  material  then  in  motion."  No  difficulty  is  antici- 
pated with  slides  now  that  water  has  been  let  into  the  Cut  as  the  back  pressure 
of  the  water  is  expected  to  result  in  greater  stability.  What  material  remains  in 
the  slides  in  the  prism  will  be  handled  by  the  dredges,  which  will  continue  their 
work  until  the  "angle  of  repose"  has  been  reached. 

The  slides  have  caused  an  immense  amount  of  extra  excavation  and  many 
delays  in  the  work,  but  they  have  demonstrated  the  fact  that  a  sea  level  Canal 
requiring  a  Cut  80  feet  deeper  than  it  now  is  would  be  nearly  impossible  to 
accomplish.  It  is  believed  that  the  slides  would  have  prevented  the  carrying 
out  of  a  sea  level  project,  except  at  an  enormous  expense. 


[  185  ] 


51 


OLD   FRENCH   LADDER    DREDGE 
*?S? —  / 


The  sea  going  suction  dredge  Culebra,  shown  above,  with  its  sister  vessel,  the  Caribbean, 
constitute  the  most  expensive  units  in  the  Commission's  dredging  fleet.  These  vessels  move  up 
and  down  the  channel,  sucking  up  the  mud  and  loose  material,  conveying  it  into  their  own  hoppers. 
When  the  hoppers  are  filled,  the  vessels  go  out  to  sea  and  empty.  The  suction  dredges  were  used 
to  advantage  in  the  fill  at  Gatun  Dam.  Several  of  the  old  French  dredges  were  repaired  and 
used  by  the  Americans. 


[  186 


Suction  dredge  No.  82,  removing  silt  from  the  channel  north  of  Gamboa  dike, 
was  the  first  dredge  put  to  work  in  the  Gatun  Lake  section. 


This 


A  dipper  dredge  at  work  in  the  Canal.     The  material  is  dumped  into  the  barge  along  side  the 
dredge,  and  when  full  the  barge  is  towed  out  to  sea  and  emptied. 


The  Corozal,  the  newest  and  most  modern  ladder  dredge  in  the  Canal  service.     It  is 
equipped  with  five  yard  buckets  and  can  dig  to  45  feet  below  mean  sea  level. 

[  187  ] 


Part  of  Miraflores  lock  site  and  the  Canal  channel  to  the  south  of  it  were  excavated 
hydraulically.  This  view  shows  one  of  the  hydraulic  pumps  forcing  the  water  through  pipes, 
fitted  with  monitors,  with  a  pressure  of  130  pounds  per  square  inch  at  the  nozzle,  which  washes 
the  material  into  pits  or  sumps. 


After  the  material  has  been  loosened  and  washed  into  the  sumps,  centrifugal  dredging  pumps, 
shown  here,  force  the  material  to  the  desired  destination.  Many  acres  have  been  reclaimed  near 
Corozal  by  utilizing  this  excavated  material. 

[  188  ] 


,-  n 


m 


^2* 


near'  Cmpire^U  '  >  ~ 


*     L- 


The  upper  picture  shows  a  view  of  the  Canal  looking  north  from  Paraiso  bridge  toward  Gold  Hill, 
showing  work  progressing  in  the  Canal,  August,  1908.  The  center  picture  is  a  view  looking  south 
from  the  same  point,  1908,  Ancon  Hill  in  the  distance.  In  the  lower  picture  taken  the  same  year, 
the  Canal  is  shown  near  Empire.     The  suspension  bridge  near  Empire  may  be  seen  in  the  distance. 


[  189 


'"'•ia 

tf    B  '-  "VIM! 

w 

'  Pj 

jW^flfi 

ssffl 

«i»  i 

.V*-*-  '"' 

m^j.-^ 

fc?      — r 

»• 

Paraiso  in  the  French  days.  This  was  the  site  of  one  of  the  locks  in  the  10-lock  Canal  scheme 
when  the  French  were  at  work.  On  April  23,  1904,  the  United  States  made  the  memorable 
purchase  at  $40,000,000,  and  on  May  4,  1904,  the  property  was  turned  over  to  the  Americans. 


Paraiso  in  the  days  of  American  occupancy,  showing  Ancon  Hill  in  the  distance.  The  cranes 
which  are  also  visible,  show  the  beginning  of  the  work  at  Pedro  Miguel  Lock.  The  French  had 
none  of  the  big  tools,  up-to-date  machinery,  steam  shovels,  cranes,  etc.,  but  with  the  equipment 
which  they  had  they  took  out  78,000,000  cubic  yards  of  spoil,  of  which  30,000,000  cubic  yards  was 
useful  to  the  Americans. 

[  190] 


The  Cut  at  Bas  Obispo  looking  south  June  30,  1910.  The  greater  part  of  the  excavating  in 
this  section  had  to  be  done  through  solid  rock,  and  thousands  of  pounds  of  dynamite  were  used. 
It  was  in  this  section  that  the  premature  explosion  occurred  in  1908. 


Steam  shovel  218  buried  under  fall  of  rock,  west  side  of  Canal,  near  Las  Cascadas.  This  shovel 
was  working  on  the  bottom  of  the  canal  when  destroyed,  May  31,  1912.  Several  steam  shovels 
have  been  destroyed  in  this  manner  and  a  number  of  men  injured  and  killed. 

\  191  1 


A  close  view  of  the  suspension  bridge  across  the  Canal  near  Empire.  This  bridge  is  used  for 
vehicles  and  foot  passengers,  but  will  be  taken  down  when  the  Canal  is  completed.  There  will 
be  no  bridge  aross  the  Canal,  except  the  pontoon  bridge  near  Paraiso,  which  will  be  swung  over 
against  the  east  side  of  the  Canal  when  not  in  use. 


Ninety-five  ton  steam  shovel  at  work  in  Culebra  Cut.  One  hundred  steam  shovels  have  been 
used  in  the  Canal  work.  Culebra  Cut  is  a  term  officially  applied  to  that  part  of  the  Canal  between 
Bas  Obispo  on  the  north  and  Pedro  Miguel  on  the  south,  a  distance  of  about  nine  miles.  The 
width  of  the  Cut  is  300  feet  at  the  bottom. 

[  192  ] 


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greatest  difficulty  in  the  excavating,  was  due  to  slides  and  breaks,  which  closed  the  drainage 
ditches,  upset  the  steam  shovels,  and  covered  the  tracks.  The  water  that  was  not  carried  off  by 
the  diversion  channels,  entered  the  Cut,  necessitating  pumping. 


f  193  ] 


The  side  of  the  Cut  at  Gold  Hill,  where  the  deepest  cutting  was  done.    When  this  photograph  was 
taken  the  steam  shovels  had  30  feet  further  to  go  at  this  point. 


[  194  ] 


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[195] 


In  the  rainy  season,  two  streams  of  considerable  size  originally  crossed  the  route  of  the  Canal 
in  the  Culebra  Cut  section,  one  of  which  was  the  Camacho  River,  now  called  the  Camacho 
diversion.  To  prevent  these  streams  from  flooding  the  Cut,  new  channels  were  dug,  paralleling 
the  banks  of  the  Canal,  through  which  their  flows  were  diverted.  In  this  case  it  was  necessary  to 
dig  a  tunnel,  which  is  shown  above,  to  conduct  the  water  through  the  hill. 


Culebra  Cut  looking  south  from  Gold  and  Contractor's  Hills  taken  at  a  time  when  the  Cut  was 
practically  free  of  material  brought  in  by  Cucaracha  slide. 


1 96 


Loaded  work  train  crossing  the  high  trestle  over  the  Canal  at  Paraiso.  This  bridge,  known  as 
No.  57 l/z,  is  to  be  taken  down  as  soon  as  the  pontoon  bridge  a  little  above  this  point  is  constructed, 
as  it  obstructs  navigation  of  the  Canal. 


Section  of  Culebra  Cut  in  the  vicinity  of  Las  Cascadas  after  completion.    Various  small 
slides  have  occurred  all  along  the  banks  in  this  part  of  the  Canal. 

[  1^7  ] 


Completed  section  of  Culebra  Cut  looking  north  from  Cunette.     Steam  shovels  are 
excavating  in  slide  material.    Bottom  is  to  grade. 


Culebra  Cut  between  Gold  and  Contractor's  Hills  after  the  removal  of  construction  tracks. 

[  198  ] 


Culebra  Cut,  south  of  Cucaracha  slide,  after  the  channel  began  to  fill. 
Railroad  crossing  at  Paraiso  in  the  distance. 


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Close  view  of  high  rock  bank  of  Culebra  Cut  after  the  water  was  let  in.     The  thin  white  line 
about  midway  up  the  bank  to  the  right  marks  the  ultimate  water  level. 


199 


General  view  of  engine  house  and  yard  at  Paraiso  in  1906.     This  yard  was  dismantled  several 
years  ago,  and  yards  were  established  at  Pedro  Miguel  and  Las  Cascadas. 


Engine  house  and  yard  at  Las  Cascadas.  A  very  busy  scene  was  presented  in  the  morning 
when  a  hundred  or  more  of  the  engines  were  leaving  the  yard  to  begin  their  daily  work  of 
pulling  dirt  trains  out  of  the  Cut  to  the  dumping  grounds. 

[  200  ] 


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[  201] 


Men  shifting  track.  The  old  way  before  the 
track  shifting  machine  was  invented,  and  put 
into  use. 


Revolving  steam  shovel.  A  few  of  these 
machines  were  used  to  advantage,  but  larger 
ones  were  used  for  the  heavy  work. 


Rock  channeler  at  work.  These  machines  were  used  in  Pedro  Miguel  Lock,  where  the 
natural  foundation  was  hard  trap  rock.  They  cut  grooves  into  this  rock  to  the  required  depth  for 
the  installation  of  the  floor  culverts,  after  which  the  material  was  blasted  loose,  the  aim  being  not 
to  disturb  the  rock  between  the  culvert  trenches.  They  were  also  used  in  the  Canal  near  Bas 
Obispo  where  the  excavation  was  through  solid  rock. 

[  202  ] 


Locomotive  cranes  were  a  useful  adjunct  to  the  Canal  work.     This  one  is  operating  a 
clamshell  bucket,  so  named  from  its  resemblance  to  the  bivalve. 


The  American  machine  which  moves  mountains.  One  of  the  100  steam  shovels  engaged  in 
the  Canal  work,  holding  in  its  dipper  a  rock  of  many  tons'  weight.  With  the  advent  of  these 
machines  King  Yardage  became  a  household  word  in  the  Canal  Zone.  The  American  operators 
take  a  personal  pride  in  their  work,  and  the  world's  record  for  steam  shovel  excavation  is  said  to 
be  held  on  the  Isthmus. 

[  203  ] 


Excavated  material  is  transported  in  several  kinds  of  cars,  one  of  which  is  the  Western  Dump 
Car,  shown  in  the  picture.  In  some  of  the  cars,  the  body  is  held  upright  by  a  chain  grip,  which, 
when  released,  allows  the  body  to  tip,  emptying  the  contents.     Others  are  dumped  by  air. 


An  unloading  machine  at  work  on  a  train  of  Lidgerwood  flat  cars.  The  unloader,  actuated 
by  steam  from  the  locomotive,  pulls  the  plow  by  a  steel  cable  which  coils  around  a  drum.  A  man 
rides  the  plow,  and  signals  the  movements  with  a  flag. 

[  204  ] 


An  earth  spreader  at  work.     After  the  cars  have  been  unloaded,  an  earth  spreader 
comes  along  and  levels  off  the  ground. 


In  order  to  dispose  of  the  material  from  the  Cut,  large  dumps  had  to  be  established.  The  site 
of  this  one,  known  as  Miraflores  dump,  was  formerly  a  swamp,  but  it  has  now  been  built  up  to  a 
height  of  more  than  40  feet.  A  large  amount  of  the  excavated  material  was  used  in  building  the 
Dam  at  Gatun  and  the  Naos  Island  breakwater  on  the  Pacific  side.  The  spoil  from  Culebra  Cut 
has  been  carried  all  the  way  from  five  to  twenty-four  miles. 

[  205  ] 


A  loaded  train  of  Lidgerwood  flat  cars  coming  out  of  the  Cut  at  Pedro  Miguel.  During  the 
latter  part  of  the  excavation,  the  Cut  was  at  such  a  depth  below  the  surrounding  levels  that  long 
inclines  had  to  be  built,  up  which  the  dirt  trains  were  pulled  by  two  and  three  locomotives. 


Two  wrecking  cranes  picking  up  a  steam  shovel.  These  machines  range  in  capacity  from  15  to 
100  tons,  and  are  kept  under  steam  day  and  night,  ready  for  any  emergency  in  the  transportation 
service. 


[  20(5  ] 


Power  stations  are  situated  at  various  points  along  the  Canal  to  furnish  power  to  the 
electrically-operated  machinery,  as  well  as  to  light  the  Canal  Zone  settlements.  The  building 
shown  in  the  picture  is  the  Miraflores  station  which  supplied  power  to  the  construction 
machinery  at  Pedro  Miguel  and  Miraflores  Locks.  It  is  an  oil-burning  plant  but  can  be  converted 
to  a  steam  plant  at  any  time.  Many  of  the  industrial  plants  and  all  passenger  locomotives  are 
equipped  with  oil  burners. 


The  corral  at  Ancon.  Corrals  are  located  at  all  of  the  Zone  settlements,  and  there  are  about 
650  animals  in  the  Canal  service,  including  377  mules.  The  majority  of  them  were  brought  from 
the  United  States,  and  all  hay  and  feed  comes  from  the  States. 

[  207  ] 


The  immense  amount  of  machinery  used  on  the  Canal  work  required  exceptionally  complete 
repair  facilities.  This  is  the  Gorgona  shops,  the  largest  on  the  Canal,  where  repairs  'were  made  to 
every  kind  of  equipment,  except  steam  shovels,  from  clocks  to  locomotives.  These  shops  have 
been  dismantled  and  moved  as  the  waters  of  the  Gatun  Lake  will  cover  this  site.  The  permanent 
repair  shops  will  be  located  at  Balboa. 


Repair  shops  at  Empire,  showing  the  native  village  in  the  background.  All  major  repairs  to 
steam  shovels  were  made  at  these  shops.  Steam  shovels  were  inspected  daily  and  the  minor  repairs 
were  done  in  the  field. 


20S 


Many  slides  have  developed  during  the  latter  part  of  the  Canal  work  which  have  caused  a  great 
deal  of  damage  and  the  excavation  of  much  more  material  than  was  formerly  estimated.  This 
view  shows  a  break  on  the  west  bank  at  Culebra  which  encroached  on  the  village  of  Culebra  to 
such  an  extent  that  it  was  necessary  to  move  a  large  number  of  buildings,  including  the  hotel 
and  Y.  M.  C.  A.  Clubhouse. 


A  break  in  the  east  bank  of  the  Canal  near  Bas  Obispo.  This  was  caused  by  high  water  in 
the  diversion  channel,  which  broke  through  the  separation  wall,  carrying  into  the  Canal  over 
100,000  cubic  yards  of  material,  and  flooding  it  for  some  distance.  The  disastrous  effect  on  the 
railroad  is  clearly  shown. 

f  209    1 


This  shows  where  the  slides  on  either  bank  have  encroached  upon  the  prism  of  the  Canal 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  almost  effect  a  closure. 


Telling  effects  of  the  slide  in  the  west  bank  at  Culebra.  Most  of  this  has  now  been  cleared 
away,  and  the  danger  of  similar  trouble  at  this  point  has  largely  passed,  because  of  the  method 
adopted  of  terracing  the  upper  levels  to  relieve  the  weight  on  the  banks. 


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[211] 


Steam  shovels  working  in  the  slide  at  Cucaracha.  This  slide  showed  evidence  of  activity  as 
far  back  as  1887,  when  the  French  were  at  work  on  the  Canal,  and  has  been  a  source  of  trouble 
ever  since. 


This  graphically  portrays  the  result  of  a  slide  which  has  nearly  buried  a  steam  shovel.  Colonel 
Gaillard,  the  Division  Engineer,  in  charge  of  operations  in  Culebra  Cut  said:  "I  know  of  no  single 
thing  that  has  done  so  much  to  complicate  the  engineering  problems  of  our  work  or  to  hinder 
and  curtail  the  yardage  output  as  the  slides."  Colonel  George  W.  Goethals,  Chairman  and  Chief 
Engineer,  said:  "The  only  way  to  overcome  the  slides  is  by  unremitting  excavation." 

[  212  J 


HE  Panama  Canal  Act,  which  was  signed  by  ex-President  Taft  on 
August  24,  1912,  provides  for  the  opening,  maintenance,  protection, 
and  operation  of  the  Canal,  and  the  sanitation  and  government  of 
the  Canal  Zone.  Authority  is  invested  in  the  President  to  carry  out 
its  provisions  at  such  time  as  conditions  warrant.  While  the  law  provides  for 
the  future  of  the  Canal  insofar  as  its  needs  are  now  apparent,  it  is  probable  that 
situations  will  eventually  arise  requiring  its  modification  in  some  respects,  but 
the  main  object,  that  of  transferring  the  great  enterprise  from  the  construction 
to  the  operating  stage  will  be  attained. 

ACQUISITION    OF    PRIVATE    LANDS 

Ex-President  Taft,  by  Executive  Order  dated  December  5,  1912,  declared 
that  all  land  and  land  under  water  within  the  limits  of  the  Canal  Zone  were 
necessary  for  the  construction,  maintenance,  operation,  protection,  and  sanita- 
tion of  the  Panama  Canal,  and  authorized  Colonel  Goethals  to  take  possession 
of  such  land  on  behalf  of  the  United  States.  In  the  hearings  before  the  Senate 
Committee  on  Interoceanic  Canals,  prior  to  the  passage,  by  the  Senate,  of  the 
Act  of  August  24,  1912,  Colonel  Goethals  went  on  record  in  favor  of  the  de- 
population of  the  Canal  Zone,  and  the  acquisition  of  all  private  lands  therein, 
as  follows: 

Senator  Bristow:  "What  would  you  do  with  the  people  you  have  got  there 
(meaning  Canal  Zone),  now  ?"  Colonel  Goethals:  "I  would  drive  them  all  out 
of  there." 

Senator  Bristow:  "Drive  them  off?"  Colonel  Goethals:  "Yes,  sir;  the 
bulk  of  the  people  that  are  there  now  are  incident  to  the  Canal,  and  as  the  Canal 
work  is  completed  I  would  return  them  to  their  native  islands,  or  to  Europe, 
wherever  they  came  from  originally." 

Senator  Bristow:  "Now,  would  you  let  this  10-mile  strip  grow  up  into 
jungle?"  Colonel  Goethals:  "Yes,  sir,  it  is  the  greatest  safeguard  the  Canal 
can  have." 

Senator  Bristow:  "You  think  that  it  would  not  be  practicable  for  an 
enemy  to  secrete  himself  in  the  jungle  and  approach  the  vital  parts  of  the  Canal 

f  213  ] 


CTMB  TvANP, DIVIDED q~HB  WQMiJ I j^ITED 

through  the  jungle  more  easily  than  through  an  inhabited  country."  Colonel 
Goethals:  "I  am  assuming  that  the  Canal  is  properly  defended  by  the  American 
troops,  and  that  the  necessary  safeguards  have  been  provided  to  prevent  any 
such  attack;  under  those  conditions  it  would  be  impossible." 

Senator  Bristow:  ""Well,  if  that  is  impossible,  then  why  should  the  in- 
habitants on  the  Zone  be  a  menace  ?"  Colonel  Goethals:  "In  that  they  can 
give  information.  They  will  clear  the  land  and  leave  open  spaces  and  enable 
larger  forces  to  concentrate  against  us  than  is  possible  with  the  jungle." 

Article  6  of  the  Canal  Treaty  of  February  26,  1904,  provides  that  all 
damages  caused  to  the  owners  of  private  lands  or  property  of  any  kind  shall 
be  appraised  and  settled  by  a  joint  commission  appointed  by  the  Governments 


Joint  Land  Commission  as  organized  on  March  1,   1913.      Left  to  right— Hon.  Samuel  Lewis, 
Dr.   Roland   P.    Falkner,   Mr.   J.   C.   Luitwieler,   Secretary   (standing),    Dr.  Federico  Boyd,  Dr.  Leo 

S.  Rowe. 

of  the  United  States  and  Panama,  whose  decisions  as  to  such  damages  shall  be 
final,  and  whose  awards  shall  be  paid  solely  by  the  United  States.  Under  this 
provision  there  have  been  four  different  commissions,  but  the  most  important 
is  the  last  to  which  was  delegated  the  delicate  task  of  adjudicating  the  remainder 
of  the  private  lands  in  the  Canal  Zone  in  accordance  with  the  Executive  Order 
of  December  5,  1912. 

The  American  members  of  this  commission,  Dr.  Roland  P.  Falkner  of 
Washington,  D.  C,  and  Dr.  L.  S.  Rowe  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  were 
appointed  by  ex-President  Taft  on  January  24,  1913.  The  Panamanian 
members,  appointed  by  President  Porras  of  Panama,  were  Mr.  Samuel  Lewis, 
and  Dr.  Federico  Boyd,  both  prominent  in  local  affairs.  The  commission 
met  on  March  1,  1913,  adopted  rules  of  procedure,  and  began  its  hearings, 
which  will  probably  not  be  concluded  until  some  time  in  1914. 

f  214  ] 


Visitors  inspecting  the  work  on  the  locks  at  Pedro  Miguel.  Thousands  of  tourists  have  visited 
the  Canal  during  the  last  few  years,  including  people  in  every  walk  of  life  from  the  States,  as  well 
as  committees  from  almost  every  nation  on  the  globe. 


'Big  Tree,"  a  well-known  landmark  formerly  on  the  banks  of  the  Chagres  River  at  Gorgona. 
Was  dynamited  in  August,  1913,  so  as  not  to  become  an  obstruction  to  navigation. 

[  215  ] 


Tv\N-D  .  piVIDED  -^CTTHE  WQI^fe-ELIT KITED 

At  the  outset,  the  commission  was  confronted  with  the  precedent  estab- 
lished by  former  commissions,  which  did  not  recognize  the  rights  of  occupiers 
on  lands,  but  dealt  only  with  the  owners.  This  position  was  abandoned  by  the 
present  commission,  which  has  made  awards  to  the  occupiers  as  well  as  to  the 
owners.  The  awards  appear  to  be  uniformly  satisfactory  to  claimants,  although 
there  has  been  some  complaint  of  the  delay  in  making  settlement.  Opinions 
have  been  handed  down  from  time  to  time,  and  in  the  main  have  been  favorable 
to  the  claimants.  The  rise  of  Gatun  Lake  made  it  necessary  to  take  up  the 
claims  of  private  residents  in  that  section  first.  This  part  of  the  work  was 
practically  completed  in  August,  1913,  although  payments  of  some  of  the  awards 
have  Jjeen  held  up,  due  to  protests  from  the  Counsel  of  the  United  States,  who 


A  group  of  East  Indian  laborers  in  the  Canal  service.     Those  sitting,  are  directly  in  front 
of  an  elbow  in  one  of  the  great  lock  wall  culverts. 


claimed  that  in  these  particular  cases  the  commission  acted  without  jurisdiction. 
The  point  at  issue  has  been  referred  to  the  Attorney  General  of  the  United 
States  for  decision. 

It  is  impossible  to  arrive  at  a  close  estimate  of  the  total  amount  to  be  award- 
ed in  damages,  but  it  may  be  as  much  as  several  million  dollars  in  case  all 
private  land  is  purchased.  The  work  of  the  commission  also  covers  the  adjudi- 
cation of  land  inundated  by  Gatun  Lake  outside  the  boundaries  of  the  Canal 
Zone  within  the  100-foot  contour  line.  Dr.  Rowe  resigned  in  September,  1913, 
to  resume  his  work  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

TOLLS 

In  accordance  with  the  power  conferred  upon  him  by  the  Canal  Act  of 
August   24,    1912,    President   Taft,    on    November  14,  1912,  anticipating  the 

[  21G  ] 


A  sightseeing,  or  "rubber  neck"  train,  which  is  taken  over  the  Canal  work  three  times  each 
week.  Every  facility  has  been  given  tourists  to  view  the  operations.  About  75,000  people  have 
visited  the  Canal  since  January  1,  1910. 


Isthmian  Elks  taking  a  trip  through  the  Canal  April  20,  1913.     Note  the  striking  background. 

[  217  ] 


cmB  Tv\ND    DIVIDED ^THB  WORkD>  TTKITED 

early  opening  of  the  Canal,  proclaimed  the  following  rates  of  tolls  to  be  paid 
by  vessels  using  it: 

1.  On  merchant  vessels  carrying  passengers  or  cargo,  $1.20  per  net 
vessel  ton — each  100  cubic  feet — of  actual  earning  capacity. 

2.  On  vessels  in  ballast,  without  passengers  or  cargo,  40  per  cent,  less 
than  the  rate  of  tolls  for  vessels  with  passengers  or  cargo. 

3.  Upon  naval  vessels,  other  than  transports,  colliers,  hospital  ships  and 
supply  ships,  50  cents  per  displacement  ton. 

4.  Upon  Army  and  Navy  transports,  colliers,  hospital  ships  and  supply 
ships,  $1.20  per  net  ton,  the  vessels  to  be  measured  by  the  same  rules  as  are 
employed  in  determining  the  net  tonnage  of  merchant  vessels. 

The  provision  exempting  American  vessels  in  the  coastwise  trade  from 
the  payment  of  tolls  brought  forth  a  protest  from  the  British  Government  on  the 
ground  that  it  was  a  violation  of  the  Hay-Pauncefote  Treaty,  which  provides 
"  'That  the  Canal  shall  be  free  and  open  to  the  vessels  of  commerce  and  of  war 
of  all  nations  on  terms  of  entire  equality,  so  that  there  shall  be  no  discrimination 
against  any  nation  in  respect  to  the  condition  or  charges  of  traffic."  To  many, 
the  granting  of  free  tolls  to  American  ships  in  the  coastwise  trade  would  not 
seem  to  be  discriminating  against  ships  of  foreign  nations,  which  are  not  allowed 
by  law  to  engage  in  that  trade.  Great  Britian,  however,  points  out  that  cargo 
intended  for  United  States  ports  beyond  the  Canal,  either  from  east  or  west, 
shipped  on  a  foreign  vessel,  could  be  sent  to  its  destination  more  cheaply, 
through  the  operation  of  this  exemption,  by  landing  it  at  a  United  States  port 
before  reaching  the  Canal,  and  then  sending  it  on  as  coastwise  traffic.  Then, 
too,  goods  might  be  shipped  from  a  port  in  the  United  States,  either  from  east 


Showing  group  of  Hindoos  in  khaki,  puttees,  and  turbans,  waiting  to  greet  the  visiting 

Shriners  from  the  United  States. 

[  218  ] 


CTRB  TyANP->  DIVIDED CTHB  WOBfefi  TJKITED 

or  west,  through  the  Canal,  and  then  re-shipped  to  a  foreign  port.  The  British 
view,  therefore,  is  that  if  it  were  possible  to  regulate  the  coastwise  traffic  so  that 
cases  similar  to  the  above  might  be  avoided;  in  other  words,  that  only  bona  fide 
coastwise  trade  be  benefited  by  the  exemption,  the  objection  would  be  removed. 


Procession  of  Nobles  of  Mystic  Shrine  after  disembarking  at  Colon.  A  delegation  of  about 
150  Shriners  from  the  United  States  visited  the  Isthmus  and  on  Sept.  1,  1913,  initiated  a  class  of  170 
candidates  in  the  locks  at  Miraflores. 


On  March  5,  1914,  President  Wilson  in  a  special  message  to  congress  de- 
manded the  repeal  of  the  objectionable  clause  and  a  bill  for  repeal  was  imme- 
diately introduced.  After  one  of  the  hardest  fought  battles,  noted  for  its  lively 
and  often  acrimonious  debates,  the  repeal  act  was  finally  passed  on  June  12, 
1914,  the  text  being  as  follows: 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  in  congress  assembled,  That  the  second  sentence,  jn  section 
5  of  the  act  entitled,  "An  act  to  provide  for  the  opening,  maintenance,  protec- 
tion and  operation  of  the  Panama  Canal  and  the  sanitation  and  government  of 
the  Canal  zone,"  approved  August  24,  1912,  which  reads  as  follows:  "No  tolls 
shall  be  levied  upon  vessels  engaged  in  the  coastwise  trade  of  the  United  States," 
be  and  the  same  is  hereby  repealed. 

Sec.  2.  That  the  third  sentence  of  the  third  paragraph  of  said  section  of 
said  act,  be  so  amended  as  to  read  as  follows:  "When  based  upon  net  registered 
tonnage  for  ships  of  commerce,  the  tolls  shall  not  exceed  $1.25  per  net  regis- 
tered ton,  nor  be  less  than  75  cents  per  net  registered  ton,  subject,  however,  to 
the  provisions  of  article  19  of  the  convention  between  the  United  States  and 
the  republic  of  Panama,  entered  into  November  18,  1903." 

Provided,  That  the  passage  of  this  act  shall  not  be  construed  or  held  as  a 

[219] 


gTHB   hAN-D  .  DIVIDED  — q-HE:  ^\^I^^JUJ>jJTgD 


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The  Author  at  Slifer  Park,  Colon. 


waiver  of  any  right  the  United  States 
may  have  under  the  treaty  with  Great 
Britain,  ratified  February  21,  1902, 
or  the  treaty  with  the  republic  of  Pan- 
ama, ratified  February  26,  1904,  or 
otherwise  to  discriminate  in  favor  of 
its  vessels  by  exempting  the  vessels 
of  the  United  States  or  its  citizens 
from  the  payment  of  tolls  for  passage 
through  said  Canal,  or  as  in  any  way 
waiving,  impairing  or  affecting  any 
right  of  the  United  States  under  said 
treaty,  or  otherwise  with  respect  to  the 
sovereignty  over  or  the  ownership, 
control  and  management  of  said  canal 
and  the  regulation  of  the  conditions 
or  charges  of  traffic  through  the 
same. 

(Approved  June  15,  1914.) 


PROTECTING    THE    (ANAL 


One  of  the  principal  objections  to  Canal  fortifications  when  Congress  first 
took  action  was  that  the  United  States  might  be  violating  its  treaties  with  Great 
Britain.  The  Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty  of  1850  gave  the  United  States  the  right 
to  construct  the  Canal,  but  provided  that  the  completed  waterway  should  be 


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Cristobal  Point  looking  out  over  the  Atlantic  entrance  to  the  Canal.     The  building  to  the  left 
is  one  of  the  old  DeLesseps  houses,  now  used  for  offices  by  the  Canal  Commission. 

[  220  ] 


b  Tv\np  divided — crnn  WQHJyp.  ttnjted 


unfortified  and  forever  remain  neutral,  free  and  open  to  vessels  of  commerce 
and  of  war  of  all  nations  on  terms  of  equality.  This  treaty  was  abrogated  in 
1901  by  the  Hay-Pauncefote  Treaty,  now  in  force.  This  treaty  also  provides 
for  the  neutralization  of  the  Canal,  but  no  word  is  said  as  to  fortifying  it.  The 
objection,  if  there  was  any,  is  no  longer  sustainable,  inasmuch  as  Great  Britain, 
the  only  nation  that  had  any  right  to  object,  has  acquiesced  in  the  erection  of 
forts.  The  other  great  powers  have  constantly  recognized  the  right  and 
necessity  of  the  United  States  to  fortify. 

Under  the  existing  treaty  it  is  necessary  that  the  Canal  be  kept  neutral  and 
open  on  terms  of  equality  to  vessels  of  all  nations.  It  has  been  contended  that 
this  could  be  accomplished  much  more  effectively  by  means  of  an  international 
treaty  between  the  nations  interested  who  would  guarantee  its  safety  in  time  of 
war  as  in  time  of  peace.  Such  a  treaty,  backed  by  England's  enormous  naval 
power  and  her  control  of  the  Mediterranean  and  Red  Seas,  is  the  protection  of 
the  Suez  Canal.  A  similar  treaty  might  avail  for  the  United  States  under 
conditions  of  universal  peace,  but  universal  peace  has  not  yet  been  attained. 
Nations  continue  to  go  to  war  in  spite  of  treaties,  and,  in  the  heat  of  conflict, 
frequently  ignore  all  laws  both  of  usage  and  humanity.  Treaties  are  effective 
when  there  is  power  to  enforce  them.  To  maintain  neutrality  then,  it  is  argued 
that  the  United  States  must  have  the  power  to  do  so,  and  in  no  better  place  can 
that  power  be  exercised  than  in  forts  on  the  Canal. 

One  of  the  greatest  benefits  the  United  States  expects  to  get  from  the  Canal 
is  increased  naval  effectiveness.  The  Canal  would  naturally  be  the  first  place 
an  enemy  would  endeavor  to  control,  treaty  or  no  treaty;  and  the  other  powers 
to  a  treaty,  if  there  were  any,  would  either  stand  aloof,  or  take  sides  in  the 
international  struggle  which  might  result.  The  Canal  is  being  built  by  Ameri- 
cans with  American  money  and  skill.  If  it  is  to  remain  to  America,  it  must  be 
protected;  strength  to  resist  is  the  best  form  of  protection. 

To  maintain  neutrality  is  the  first  object  of  the  fortifications;  the  second  is 
to  retain  to  the  United  States  what  has  been  accomplished  by  its  citizens. 
Keeping  the  Canal  neutral  does  not  mean  that  the  United  States  will  be  com- 


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Wall  scaling  contest  between  men  of  the  U.  S.  Marine  Corps  and  the  Tenth  Infantry, 
U.  S.  A.     A  Fourth  of  July  event. 

[  221   ] 


CTHE  JiANP  .  DIVIDED  — crHB  WOUUP>  TTXITED 

pelled  to  keep  it  open  to  a  foe  in  pursuit  of  her  own  ships,  or  allow  hostile  ships 
to  pass  through  on  their  way  to  blockade  or  bombard  an  American  city. 

These  questions  have  been  settled  to  the  extent  that  Congress  has  appropri- 
ated, up  to  June  23,  1913,  a  total  of  $10,676,950  for  the  protection  of  the  Canal. 
The  Government  has  already  constructed  two  immense  forts — one  at  each  end 
of  the  Canal.  On  each  of  these  forts  is  mounted  one  16-inch  gun — the  .largest 
guns  ever  built  in  the  world — and  they  were  made  in  America.  In  addition 
there  are  14-inch  guns  and  a  substantial  battery  of  12-inch  howitzers.  The  16- 
inch  guns  throw  a  shell  weighing  2400  pounds  a  distance  of  17  miles  and  will 
pierce  any  armor  plate  at  a  distance  of  over  11  miles.  On  the  Pacific  side 
the  islands  of  Naos,  Culebra,  Perico,  and  Flamenco  are  being  fortified  and  form 
one  reservation,  while,  on  the  mainland  at  Balboa,  a  second  reservation  will  be 


A  military  force  has  been  maintained  in  the  Canal  Zone  ever  since  American  occupancy. 
This  is  Camp  Elliott,  which  occupies  a  commanding  site  near  Bas  Obispo,  the  headquarters  for 
the  local  detachment  of  the  United  States  Marine  Corps. 

established.  On  the  Atlantic  side  there  will  be  a  fort  on  Margarita  Point, 
about  a  mile  north  of  Manzanillo  Island,  on  which  Colon  is  situated;  another 
on  Toro  Point  across  the  bay  from  Colon,  and  one  on  the  mainland  at  Colon. 
In  the  neighborhood  of  the  locks,  those  at  Gatun,  seven  miles  inland,  and  those 
at  Miraflores  and  Pedro  Miguel,  inland  nine  and  eleven  miles,  respectively,  there 
will  be  located  field  defenses  to  provide  against  attack  by  landing  forces.  This 
work  is  being  done  under  the  direction  of  Lieut.  George  R.  Goethals,  the  elder 
son  of  Col.  George  W.  Goethals,  the  builder  of  the  Canal.  It  is  planned  to  keep 
on  the  Isthmus  12  companies  of  coast  artillery,  one  battery  of  field  artillery,  four 
regiments  of  infantry,  one  squadron  of  cavalry,  and  one  batallion  of  marines. 
The  forts,  and  batteries  comprising  them,  have  been  named,  as  follows: 
At  the  Pacific  terminus — Fort  Grant  and  Fort  Amador,  the  first  located  on 

[  222  ] 


^TMB   IvA£ED_„DIVIDED  ^q^\E  WPBfegJ 1 1JITED 


the  group  of  islands  in  the  bay,  in  honor  of  Gen.  Ulysses  S.- Grant,  U.  S.  A., 
who  died  on  July  23,  1885,  and  the  second,  located  on  the  mainland  at  Balboa, 
in  honor  of  Dr.  Manuel  Amador  Guerrero,  first  president  of  the  Republic  of 
Panama,  who  died  on  May  2,  1909. 

At  the  Atlantic  terminus — Fort  Sherman,  Fort  Randolph,  and  Fort  De 
Lesseps,  the  first,  in  honor  of  Gen.  William  T.  Sherman,  U.  S.  A.,  who  died  on 
February  14,  1881,  the  second,  in  honor  of  Maj.  Gen.  Geo.  Wallace  F.Randolph, 
U.  S.  A.,  who  died  September  9,  1910,  and  the  third,  in  honor  of  Count  Ferdi- 
nand de  Lesseps,  promoter  of  the  Panama  Canal,  who  died  December  7,  1894. 


A  street  in  the  marine  camp  showing  the  barracks.     Much  work  has  been  done  by  the  men  in 
beautifying  the  grounds,  and  this  picture  shows  the  result  of  their  efforts. 

Fort  Sherman  will  be  located  on  Toro  Point,  Fort  Randolph  on  Margarita 
Point,  and  Fort  De  Lesseps  on  the  mainland  at  Colon. 

FORT    GRANT    .MILITARY    RESERVATION 

Battery  Newton,  in  honor  of  Maj.  Gen.  John  Newton,  U.  S.  Volunteers 
(Brigadier  General,  Chief  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  A.),  who  died  May  1,  1895. 

Battery  Merritt,  in  honor  of  Maj.  Gen.  Wesley  Merritt,  U.  S.  A.,  who 
died  December  3,  1910. 

Batten/  Carr,  in  honor  of  Brevt.  Maj.  Gen.  Jos.  Bradford  Carr,  (Brig. 
Gen.  U.  S.  Vols.),  who  died  Feb.  24,  1895. 

Battery  Prince,  in  honor  of  Brig.  Gen.  Harry  Prince,  U.  S.  Vols.  (Lieut. 
Col.  U.  S.  A.),  who  died  August  19,  1892. 

Battery  Warren,  in  honor  of  Maj.  Gen.  Gouverneur  K.  Warren,  U.  S. 
Vols.  (Lieutenant  Colonel,  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  A.),  who  died  August  8, 
1882. 

[  22:5  ] 


In  1911  the  War  Department  decided  to  send  a  regiment  of  infantry  to  the  Isthmus. 
This  is  their  camp,  known  as  Camp  Otis,  near  Las  Cascadas. 


m 


Camp  life  at  Camp  Otis. 

[  224  ] 


CTHB  TvAN-P  .DIVIDED^crHB  WPgfcj^T  DOITED 

Battery  Buell,  in  honor  of  Maj.  Gen.  Don  Carlos  Buell,  U.  S.  Vols.  (Colonel 
Assistant  Adjutant  General,  U.  S.  A.),  who  died  November  19,  1898. 

Battery  Burnsidc,  in  honor  of  Maj.  Gen.  Ambrose  E.  Burnside,  U.  S.  Vols. 
(First  Lieutenant,  Third  U.  S.  Artillery),  who  died  September  13,  1881. 

Battery  Parke,  in  honor  of  Maj.  Gen.  John  G.  Parke,  U.  S.  Vols.  (Colonel, 
Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  A.),  who  died  December  16,  1900. 

FORT    AMADOR    MILITARY    RESERVATION 

Battery  Smith,  in  honor  of  Maj.  Gen.  Charles  F.  Smith,  U.  S.  Vols. 
(Colonel,  Third  U.  S.  Infantry),  who  died  April  25,  1862. 

FORT    SHERMAN    MILITARY    RESERVATION 

Battery  Howard,  in  honor  of  Maj.  Gen.  Oliver  O.  Howard,  U.  S.  A.,  who 
died  October  26,  1909. 


Naos  Island,  one  of  the  islands  in  Panama  Bay  belonging  to  the  United  States,  which  is 
being  fortified.     The  island  is  connected  to  the  mainland  by  a  breakwater. 


Battery  Baird,  in  honor  of  Brig.  Gen.  Absalom  Baird,  who  died  June  14, 
1905. 

Battery  Stanley,  in  honor  of  Maj.  Gen.  David  S.  Stanley,  U.  S.  Vols. 
(Brigadier  General,  U.  S.  A.),  who  died  March  13,  1902. 

Battery  Mower,  in  honor  of  Maj.  Gen.  Joseph  A.  Mower,  V.  S.  Vols. 
(Colonel,  Twenty-fifth  Infantry),  who  died  January  6,  1870. 

Battery  KUpatrick,  in  honor  of  Maj.  Gen.  Judson  Kilpatrick,  U.  S.  Vols. 
(Captain,  First  Artillery),  who  died  December  2,  1881. 

FORT    RANDOLPH    MILITARY    RESERVATION 

Battery  Tidball,  in  honor  of  Brig.  Gen.  John  C.  Tidball,  U.  S.  A.,  who 
died  May  15,  1906. 

Battery  Zalinski,  in  honor  of  Maj.  Gen.  Edward  Lewis  Zalinski,  (5th  U.  S. 
Artillery),  who  died  March  10,  1909. 

Battery  Webb,  in  honor  of  Brevet  Maj.  Gen.  Alexander  S.  Webb,  U.  S.  A. 
(Lieutenant  Colonel,  44th  U.  S.  Infantry),  who  died  February  12,  1911. 

[  225  ] 


CTFIB  UAN-P  .  DIVIDED -^ctthb  W_O^P;J[IKITED 

Battery  Weed,  in  honor  of  Brig.  Gen.  Stephen  H.  Weed,  U.  S.  Volunteers 
(Captain,  5th  U.  S.  Artillery),  who  was  killed  in  action,  July  2,  1863,  at  Gettys- 
burg, Pa. 

FORT    DE    LESSEPS    MILITARY    RESERVATION 

Battery  Morgan,  in  honor  of  Brig.  Gen.  Charles  H.  Morgan,  U.  S.  Volun- 
teers (Major,  4th  Artillery),  who  died  December  20,  1875. 

BREAKWATERS 

To  protect  Colon  harbor  from  the  violent  northers  which  occasionally 
occur  during  the  winter  months,  and  which  often  made  it  unsafe  for  vessels 
to  lie  at  anchor  while  they  were  in  progress,  and  also  to  reduce  to  a  minimum 
the  amount  of  silt  that  may  be  washed  into  the  Canal  channel,  a  breakwater 
extending  in  a  northeasterly  direction  from  Toro  Point  has  been  built  out 
into  the  bay.  Including  its  shore  connections  it  is  11,700  feet,  or  a  little  over 
two  miles  long.     It  is  a  trestle  fill,  and  contains  about  2,840,000  cubic  yards 


Toro  Point,  at  the  Atlantic  entrance  to  the  Canal,  which  is  being  fortified. 


of  rock.  An  embankment  was  first  built  up  to  within  15  feet  of  the  surface  of 
the  water  and  the  piles  for  the  trestle  were  driven  through  this  fill.  From  the 
trestle,  which  was  double  tracked  for  nearly  its  entire  length,  rock  quarried  at 
Toro  Point  and  excavated  from  the  Canal  prism  was  dumped  to  form  a  core. 
This  core  was  then  armored  with  hard  rock  brought  from  the  quarries  at  Porto 
Bello.  The  breakwater  is  15  feet  wide  on  the  top,  and  is  about  10  feet  above 
mean  sea  level.  It  is  proposed  to  build  an  east  breakwater,  about  7,000 
feet  long,  on  the  opposite  side  of  Limon  Bay  extending  out  from  Coco 
Solo  Point. 

On  the  Pacific  side,  a  breakwater  extends  from  Balboa  to  Naos  Island, 
nearly  parallel  to  the  Canal  channel,  for  a  distance  of  about  17,000  feet,  or  a  little 
more  than  three  miles.  Like  the  Toro  Point  breakwater,  it  is  a  trestle  fill.  It 
is  practically  a  continuation  of  the  Balboa  dumps,  and  contains  about  18,000,000 
cubic  yards  of  earth  and  rock  taken  from  Culebra  Cut.     It  varies  from  20  to  40 

[  226  ] 


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feet  in  height  above  mean  sea  level,  and  is  from  50  to  3,000  feet  wide  at  the  top. 
A  breakwater  is  not  necessary  at  this  point  as  a  protection  against  storms  to  the 
harbor  at  Balboa,  but  it  serves  to  divert  a  swift  cross-current  that  would  carry 
soft  material  from  the  shallow  harbor  of  Panama  into  the  Canal  channel.     It 


Toro  Point  breakwater.  In  order  to  protect  the  Cristobal  docks  and  the  Atlantic  entrance 
to  the  Canal  from  heavy  seas,  a  breakwater  has  been  built  out  from  Toro  Point,  on  the  opposite 
side  of  Limon  Bay.  It  is  over  two  miles  long,  and  is  armored  with  large  rock  brought  from 
Porto  Bello. 

also  forms  a  rail  connection  between  the  mainland  and  the  islands  where  work 
on  the  fortifications  required  the  transfer  of  much  construction  material. 
Under  the  concession  from  Colombia  under  which  the  Panama  Railroad  oper- 
ated, and  which  was  transferred  to  the  Republic  of  Panama,  it  was  stipulated 
that  the  group  of  islands,  of  which  Naos  is  one,  should  be  connected  by  rail  with 
the  mainland,  and  the  completion  of  the  breakwater  has  served  to  fulfill  this 
condition. 

LIGHTING    THE    CANAL 

Due  to  the  complete  system  of  aids  to  navigation,  which  is  being  installed 
throughout  its  entire  length,  ships  will  be  able  to  pass  through  the  Canal  as  well 
by  night  as  by  day.  In  the  whole  Canal  there  are  22  angles,  eight  of  which  are 
in  Culebra  Cut,  and  in  order  that  ships  can  make  the  proper  turns  at  these 
tangents,  range  lights,  beacons,  and  lighted  buoys  are  being  placed.  The 
range  light  towers  are  located  on  the  longer  tangents,  and  consist  of  two  lights 
placed  one  behind  the  other,  in  order  to  prolong  the  sailing  line  until  the  proper 
moment  for  making  the  turn.  They  are  situated  on  land,  and  it  is  necessary  to 
keep  trochas  cleared  of  jungle  growth,  which,  if  left  alone,  would  soon  obscure 
the  lights. 

The  towers  are  of  reinforced  concrete  and  of  several  different  designs;  the 
more  elaborate  structures  will  be  used  on  the  Gatun  locks,  and  in  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  sections,  where  they  are  closer  to  the  sailing  lines  of  the  vessels. 
In  Culebra  Cut,  where  range  lights  cannot  be  used  to  advantage  on  account  of 
11, . 


the  heigh 


>anks,  beacons  have  been  placed,  three  al  each  angle;  between 

[  228  ] 


One    of    the    lighting    towers    under    con-  Lighthouse  at  Toro  Point   which  is    main- 

struction.      These    towers  will     be    equipped  tained  by  the  Panamanian  Government, 

with  powerful  lights. 


[  229  ] 


An  avenue  of  lamp  posts  on  Gatun  Locks. 
Lighting  tower  in  the  distance. 


Close  view  of    lighthouse  on  Gatun  Locks. 
The  Locks  will  be  brilliantly  lighted  at  night. 


The  signal  tower  at  Colon,  by  moonlight. 

[  230  ] 


J^AN-D    piVIDED  ^CfflE  WOB^fi  TJNJTED 

these  there  are  intermediate  beacons  in  pairs,  one  on  each  side  of  the  Canal. 
The  beacons  are  also  built  of  concrete.  Throughout  the  Canal  entrances,  and 
Gatun  and  Miraflores  Lakes,  lighted  buoys  are  placed  about  one  mile  apart  to 
mark  each  side  of  the  channel.  At  the  Atlantic  entrance  there  is  a  light  and  fog 
signal  station  at  the  end  of  the  west  breakwater,  and  there  will  be  another 
lighthouse  on  the  east  breakwater  when  that  is  completed. 

Acetylene  gas  and  electricity  are  used  in  all  lights,  the  latter  where  the 
lights  are  conveniently  accessible.  The  candlepower  of  the  range  lights  will 
vary,  according  to  the  length  of  the  range,  from  about  12,000  to  300,000  candle- 
power.  The  most  powerful  lights  will  be  those  marking  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  entrances,  visible  from  12  to  18  statute  miles.     Mr.  W.  F.  Beyer,  assis- 


The  site  of  the  proposed  harbor  and  terminal  works  at  Balboa.  Here,  immense  shops,  and 
a  dry  dock  capable  of  accommodating  any  ship  that  can  use  the  Canal  locks  will  be  built.  The 
work  on  shops  and  harbor  has  been  begun. 

tant  engineer  in  the  office  of  the  Assistant  Chief  Engineer,  is  in  charge  of  the 
work  of  the  Lighthouse  Subdivision. 


PORT    FACILITIES 

The  amount  of  traffic  that  will  require  terminal  facilities  after  the  opening 
of  the  Canal  is  problematical.  The  Canal  Commission,  however,  has  based  its 
plans  on  a  liberal  estimate,  and  work  is  in  progress  on  new  docks  at  Cristobal 
and  Balboa.  The  facilities  at  Cristobal  consist  of  three  new  piers,  Nos.  15, 
16  and  17,  with  a  total  water  frontage  of  3,890  feet,  in  addition  to  378  feet 
frontage  at  the  head  of  the  slip  for  small  boats,  and  are  of  sufficient  size  to  pro- 
vide berthage  for  five  vessels  of  10,000  tons  each  at  one  time.  Dock  15,  420 
feet  long,  is  the  smallest  of  the  three,  and  is  virtually  an  extension  of  Dock  11, 
built  several  years  ago.     Dock  16,  1,073  feet  in  length,  parallels  the  water  front 

[  231   ] 


CTHE  TiANP    DIVIDED cm\&  WOI^D,  TTKITED 

at  Cristobal,  and  is  now  used  when  the  old  wharves  at  Colon  are  crowded. 
Dock  17,  1,042  feet  long,  is  the  only  one  to  have  water  frontage  on  both  sides. 
Room  has  been  left  for  two  additional  piers,  but  their  construction  will  be 
deferred  until  the  necessity  therefor  develops.  All  the  docks  are  protected  by  a 


Dredges  excavating  in  the  Pacific  Channel  from  Miraflores  to  the  sea. 

mole  or  breakwater  extending  out  from  shore  on  the  seaward  side,  marking  the 
boundary  line  between  Canal  Zone  and  Panamanian  waters.  In  Colon,  the 
Panama  railroad  owns  several  old  wharves,  while  the  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet 
Company  has  its  own  wharf  which  it  plans  to  enlarge.  In  addition,  there  are 
Docks  13  and  14  on  the  French  Canal,  midway  between  Cristobal  and  Mount 
Hope,  now  used  principally  in  unloading  Canal  supplies,  and  which  will  probably 
be  continued  in  service. 

At  Balboa,  the  piers  for  commercial  use  will  be  placed  at  right  angles  to  the 
axis  of  the  Canal,  with  their  ends  about  2,650  feet  from  the  center  of  the  500-foot 
channel.     They  will  be  about  1,000  feet  long  and  200  feet  wide,  with  300-foot 


■ 

1^          j                g||n(g| 

-=*-•      -JLk_ jA. 

k-X^-2sc  ^L 

mt    WEk-M  ~^^KA^nni^sSbi 

fatft  VCPPM1-..  i— Hint1"- .1^. 

■■-»■■  V. 

*   2^ 

N     ••         I 

Excavation  in  the  immediate  foreground  is  for  the  new  Balboa  dry  dock.  Buildings  under 
construction  are  the  permanent  shops.  Beyond  where  the  dredge  is  working  will  be  the  Balboa 
ship  basin. 

[  232  ] 


CTHB  Jv\N-D  ,  DIVIDED —^THB  WQBfel^_II£iJTED 

slips  between.  The  construction  of  one  pier  only  will  be  undertaken  at  first, 
but  room  has  been  provided  for  four  more.  The  old  French  steel  wharf,  1,000 
feet  in  length,  and  from  2,000  to  3,000  feet  of  berthing  space  in  front  of  the 
permanent  shops  will  be  available  when  required. 

The  superstructure  of  the  piers  at  Cristobal  and  Balboa  will  consist  of  one- 
story  steel  sheds,  having  a  clear  height  of  25  feet.  They  will  cover  the  entire 
space,  with  the  exception  of  about  18  feet  along  each  side  and  the  outer  ends. 
The  wharves  adjacent  to  the  repair  shops  at  Balboa  will  not  be  provided  with 
any  sheds.  The  total  enclosed  floor  space  at  the  new  Cristobal  docks  is  about 
218,700  square  feet.     The  track  arrangement  consists  of  a  track  along  each 


Handling  cargo  at  Balboa.     Balboa  is  a  busy  place  and  promises  to  be  busier,   as  the  perrranenk 
administration  headquarters,  dry  docks,  repair  shops,  coaling  station,  etc.,  will  be  located  here. 

edge  of  the  piers,  and  two  depressed  tracks  through  the  center  of  the  sheds, 
bringing  the  car  floors  level  with  the  floors  of  the  sheds. 

In  view  of  the  uncertainty  as  to  the  amount  of  freight  that  may  be  handled, 
it  was  decided  to  forego  the  installation  of  expensive  cargo-handling  machinery 
at  the  docks.  At  Cristobal,  with  a  range  of  tide  of  scarcely  a  foot,  freight 
requiring  transfer  can  be  handled  by  ships'  booms,  supplemented  by  blocks 
attached  to  elevated  girders  along  the  sides  of  the  pier  sheds.  At  Balboa,  where 
the  average  range  of  tides  is  close  to  13  feet,  electric  cranes  will  be  used,  in 
addition  to  a  floating  crane  for  heavy  cargo. 

DRY  DOCKS 

The  main  dry  dock  will  be  at  Balboa,  in  accordance  with  the  wish  of  the 
Navy  Department.     It  will  be  able  to  accommodate  any  vessel  that  is  able  to 

[  233  ] 


<TKB  TvANP  .  DIVIDED  ^^rHB  WORkD>  TTMITED 

pass  through  the  Canal  locks,  with  a  usable  length  of  1,000  feet,  an  entrance 
width  of  110  feet,  and  a  depth  over  the  keel  blocks  of  35  feet.  The  entrance  will 
be  closed  by  miter  gates  similar  to  those  used  on  the  locks.  The  dock  will  be 
served  by  a  40-ton  traveling  crane  with  a  travel  along  both  sides.  For  smaller 
vessels,  an  auxiliary  dry  dock  will  be  provided,  with  a  usable  length  of  350  feet, 
an  entrance  width  of  71  feet,  and  a  depth  over  the  keel  blocks  of  13J  feet.  On 
the  Atlantic  side,  the  old  French  dry  dock,  which  has  a  usable  length  of  300  feet, 
width  of  50  feet,  and  a  depth  over  the  sill  of  13  feet,  will  be  continued  in  use. 

PERMANENT    REPAIR    SHOPS 

The  permanent  repair  shops  will  be  at  Balboa,  situated  in  the  area  between 
the  dry  dock  and  repair  berth,  and  are  designed  to  maintain  the  following 


Heavy  repairs  to  the  Canal  marine  equipment  have  been  handled  in  this  dry  dock  on  the 
Atlantic  side,  and  by  shipways  on  the  Pacific  side  at  Balboa.  A  large  dry  dock  is  being  built 
which  will  accommodate  any  vessel  that  may  use  the  Canal. 


equipment:  Lock,  spillway,  and  power  plant  machinery;  water  and  land 
equipment  retained  for  the  maintenance  and  operation  of  the  Canal;  rolling 
stock  and  equipment  of  the  Panama  railroad;  mechanical  apparatus  connected 
with  the  coaling  plants;  fortifications;  cold  storage  plant;  wireless  stations,  etc.; 
making  of  repairs  required  by  individuals  and  companies  on  the  Isthmus; 
making  of  repairs  required  by  commercial  vessels,  and  making  of  such  repairs 
as  may  be  required  by  vessels  of  the  United  States  Navy  and  vessels  belonging 
to  other  governments.  Work  on  the  new  shops  was  begun  early  in  1913,  and 
will  be  completed  about  January  1,  1914.     The  transfer  of  the  Gorgona  shop 

[  234  ] 


CTHB  TvANP    DIVIDED CT^E  WOB&ILIL 

work  and  equipment  to  Balboa  and  other  points,  made  necessary  on  account  of 
the  abandonment  of  the  town  of  Gorgona  consequent  upon  the  rise  in  Gatun 
Lake,  was  effected  and  the  old  shops  demolished  during  July  and  August,  1913. 
The  new  shop  buildings  are  constructed  of  steel  frames  with  roofs  of  heavy  tile, 
made  on  the  Isthmus.  The  sides  and  ends  were  left  open  for  ventilation  and 
light,  protection  from  sun  and  rain  being  afforded  by  wide,  overhanging  eaves. 
All  shop  machinery  will  be  electrically  driven.  Until  future  requirements  are 
known,  the  marine  shops  at  Mount  Hope  will  be  continued  in  service,  and  as 
Paraiso  has  been  made  dredging  headquarters  for  the  next  few  years,  the  old 


Floor  of  the  new  concrete  lumber  dock  at  Balboa. 

shop  buildings  at  that  point  will  be  fitted  up  and  used  in  making  repairs  to 
dredging  equipment  only. 


GOVERNMENT    COAL    AND    FEEL    OIL    BUSINESS 

The  main  government  coaling  plant  will  be  situated  on  the  north  end  of  an 
island,  opposite  Dock  11,  at  Cristobal,  near  the  Atlantic  entrance  to  the  Canal. 
It  will  be  from  1,700  to  2,000  feet  in  length,  '300  feet  wide,  and  will  be  capable 
of  handling  and  storing  300,000  tons  of  coal.  Subaqueous  storage  will  be 
provided,  as  it  has  been  determined  that  coal  disintegrates  less  rapidly  when 
under  water  than  when  lying  exposed  to  the  air.  This  plant  will  have  railroad 
connection  with  the  mainland  by  means  of  a  bridge  of  the  vertical  lift  type 
crossing  the  French  Canal  at  a  point  between  Cristobal  and  Mount  Hope.  The 
coaling  plant  on  the  Pacific  side  will  be  at  Balboa,  and  will  have  a  length  of  500 
feet,  width  of  340  feet,  and  water  frontage  of  1,300  feet.  It  will  be  capable  of 
handling  and  storing  210,000  tons  of  coal,  including  100,000  tons  subaqueously. 
The  coal-handling  equipment  for  both  plants  was  purchased  in  August,  1913, 
and  at  Cristobal  consists  of  a  system  of  unloading  towers,  stocking  and  re- 
claiming  bridges,  reloaders,  and  10-ton  automatic  electric  cars  for  conveying. 

[  2.35  I 


<TMB  TvANP  .  DIVIDED  ~—  ^TagL^yQB^B)  II kited 

At  Balboa,  the  equipment  is  much  the  same,  with  the  exception  that  four  of  the 
double  cantilever  cranes  used  in  building  Pedro  Miguel  and  Miraflores  Locks 
were  substituted  for  the  stocking  and  reclaiming  bridges.  The  cost  of  this 
equipment  is  $1,833,127,  and  deliveries  are  to  be  made  in  periods  ranging  from 
six  to  30  months. 

Facilities  will  also  be  provided  at  Cristobal  and  Balboa  for  supplying 
shipping  and  the  Canal  with  fuel  oil.  To  this  end  two  steel  tanks  have  been 
erected  at  each  terminal  with  a  combined  storage  capacity  of  100,000  barrels. 

PRIVATE    COAL    AND    FUEL    OIL    STORAGE 

There  has  been  a  lively  interest  shown  on  the  part  of  dealers  in  coal  and 
fuel  oil  in  the  United  States  and  Europe  in  the  selling  possibilities  of  these  two 


Oil  storage  tanks  in  the  foreground.     Ancon  Hill  in  the  distance. 

commodities  on  the  Isthmus  after  the  completion  of  the  Canal.  This  display 
of  interest  induced  the  Government  to  make  known  its  policy  toward  these 
enterprises  in  the  early  part  of  1913.  The  plan  announced  is  to  keep  complete 
control  of  the  terminals,  water  frontage,  and  transportation  by  land  and  water 
across  the  Isthmus,  and  to  that  end,  no  land  nor  land  under  water  that  may  be 
needed  later  by  the  United  States  will  be  leased.  It  will  not  be  the  policy 
of  the  Government,  however,  to  monopolize  the  fuel  business,  and  every  means 
will  be  taken  to  encourage  the  establishment  of  private  coal  and  fuel  oil  depots 
on  the  Isthmus  under  proper  conditions.  It  is  believed  that  the  duplication 
of  coal-handling  machinery  would  be  undesirable,  and  the  Government,  there- 
fore, will  install  modern  machinery  ample  for  private,  as  well  as  for  its  own 
purposes.  Acting  under  this  theory,  the  Canal  Commission  in  July,  1913, 
announced  its  readiness  to  assign  space  for  fuel  oil  depots  at  either  end  of  the 

[  236  ] 


Jv\N-D    piVIDED crn\Es  WO^B-I  I NJTED 

Canal  under  revocable  leases  or  licenses.  Coal  storage  space  will  be  similarly 
assigned.  Private  dealers,  both  in  the  United  States  and  abroad,  made  some 
objection  against  the  revocable  lease  plan,  and  in  one  or  two  instances  expressed 
a  preference  to  attend  to  their  own  coal-handling,  but  as  evidence  that  the 
Government's  plan  is  not  discouraging  these  enterprises,  applications  had  been 
received  up  to  September  1,  1913,  for  169,000  tons  of  private  coal  storage  space 
at  Cristobal,  and  6,500  tons  at  Balboa.  A  number  of  applications  had  also  been 
received  for  space  for  fuel  oil  tanks. 

BONDED    WAREHOUSES 

The  Canal  Commission  has  not  yet  taken  up  the  matter  of  bonded  ware- 
houses, and  is  probably  reluctant  to  do  so  from  the  fact  that  the  control  of 


Telpher  plant,  which  has  handled  practically  all  of  the  coal  used  in  the  Canal  work. 

customs  at  the  Canal  Zone  ports  of  Ancon  and  Cristobal  is  vested  in  the  Panama 
Government.  With  the  approaching  completion  of  the  Canal,  the  question  has 
been  agitated  to  some  extent,  and  in  the  1913  session  of  the  Panama  National 
Assembly,  a  law  was  passed  that  would  permit  bonded  warehouses  on  Pana- 
manian territory.  Opposition  to  allowing  private  persons  to  erect  warehouses 
developed,  and  Panama  is  now  considering  the  advisability  of  building  its  own 
warehouses,  with  a  view  of  leasing  space  therein. 

XEW    FLOATING    EQUIPMENT 

In   order  to   insure   the   expeditious   handling   of   the   massive   lock   gate 
leaves,  when  repairs  become  necessary,  as  well  as  for  commercial  and  other 

1  -^7  J 


lE   Tv\N-D    piVIDED GTft&  WPEyfi  TJNJTED 


Canal  needs  and  general  wrecking  purposes,  the  contract  for  the  erection  of  two 
floating  cranes  of  the  revolving  type  has  been  made  to  the  Deutsche  Maschinen- 
fabrik  A.  G.  of  Duisburg,  Germany,  satisfactory  proposals  not  having  been 
received  from  American  firms.  Each  crane  is  of  250  tons  capacity,  and  consists 
of  a  steel  pontoon  150  feet  long,  88  feet  wide,  and  of  a  depth  of  15  feet  nine 
inches  at  the  sides,  and  16  feet  eight  inches  at  the  center,  supporting  a  super- 
structure in  three  parts;  first,  a  fixed  mast;  second,  a  revolving  'bell,"  and  third, 
an  arm  or  jib,  the  latter  provided  with  a  main  and  an  auxiliary  hoist.  The 
cranes  will  not  be  self-propelling,  but  will  contain  a  power  generating  installa- 
tion for  the  operation  of  the  crane  mechanism. 

For  handling  vessels  of  the  largest  size  at  Cristobal  and  Balboa  two 
powerful  harbor  tugs  will  be  purchased.  Two  colliers,  to  cost  not  to  exceed 
$1,000,000  each,  and  to  have  a  cargo  capacity  of  12,000  tons  each,  have  been 
authorized  by  Congress  for  use  at  the  Canal  termini. 

PERMANENT    VILLAGES    AND    BUILDINGS 

Much  study  has  been  given  the  type  of  construction  of  the  permanent 
buildings  of  the  Canal.  In  view  of  the  depopulation  of  the  Canal  Zone,  the 
number  of  permanent  towns  will  be  limited.  Balboa  will  be  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment, and  the  headquarters  for  most  of  the  employes  in  the  administrative 
branch  of  the  permanent  organization.  The  operating  force  at  Gatun  Locks 
will  live  in  the  present  villages  of  Gatun  and  New  Gatun,  and  the  force  at  Pedro 
Miguel  and  Miraflores  Locks  will  reside  in  the  new  town  which  will  be  laid  out 
on  the  fill  at  Pedro  Miguel.  The  settlements  at  Ancon  and  Cristobal  will  be 
continued  indefinitely.  Bas  Obispo,  Las  Cascadas,  Empire,  Culebra,  and 
Corozal,  together  with  a  few  smaller  villages  still  existent,  will  eventually  be 


(mm 


p!IHlim«iiiiil|in. 

J  ill !!!!!! MINIM 
£!l  !!i|!«l«i: 


f«ir      ■■'? 


f  ti  1 1 1 1 1 . ; 


^T! 


Permanent  administration  building  on  west  side  of  Ancon  Hill  under  construction. 
Overlooks  the  site  on  which  the  permanent  town  at  Balboa  will  be  laid  out. 

[  23S  1 


CTFIB  Tv\N-D  .  DIVIDED  —<?X~7\Ej  WOB^^_IIHITED 

abandoned,  leaving  Pedro  Miguel,  Paraiso  (temporary  dredging  headquarters), 
and  Gatun  as  the  only  inland  towns  of  the  Zone.  The  villages  in  the  lake  area, 
Bohio,  old  Frijoles,  Buenavista,  Ahorca  Lagarto,  Tabernilla,  San  Pablo,  and 
Mamei  disappeared  in  1911,  when  the  lake  first  began  to  rise.     ^Yith  them 


Dredges  at  work  removing  the  last  barrier  in  Atlantic  entrance. 


vanished  a  number  of  old  and  familiar  landmarks,  such  as  Stephens'  Tree, 
which  encroached  on  the  old  Panama  Railroad  right-of-way  near  Ahorca 
Lagarto,  and,  although  not  a  fact,  was  popularly  supposed  to  mark  the  grave  of 
John  L.  Stephens,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  railroad.  The  villages  of  Gorgona 
and  Matachin  shared  the  same  fate  in  July  and  August,  1913,  and  Miraflores 
was  razed  in  September,  1913.  Gorgona  was  one  of  the  oldest  and  most 
populous  settlements  in  the  Zone,  and  as  F.  N.  Otis  narrates  in  his  History  of 
the  Panama  Railroad,  published  in  1867,  was  "noted  in  the  earlier  days  of 
Chagres  River  travel  as  a  place  where  the  wet  and  jaded  traveler  was  ac- 
customed to  worry  out  the  night  on  a  raw  hide,  exposed  to  the  insects  and  the 
rain,  and  in  the  morning,  if  he  was  fortunate,  regale  himself  on  jerked  beef  and 
plantains."  Gen.  U.  S.  Grant,  then  Captain  Grant,  spent  the  night  there 
while  crossing  the  Isthmus  prior  to  the  advent  of  the  railroad. 

For  the  purpose  of  procuring  a  modern  and  permanent  type  of  architecture, 
special  architects  have  been  employed,  and  to  them  has  been  committed  the 
work  of  preparing  designs  for  all  permanent  structures,  including  machinery 
control  houses  at  the  locks,  water  works,  hydroelectric  station,  public  buildings, 
and  quarters  for  employes.  A  new  administration  building  to  cost  about  $475,- 
000  is  under  erection  on  the  west  side  of  Ancon  Hill,  overlooking  from  a  knoll 
the  new  Balboa  townsite.  It  will  be  constructed  of  structural  steel  and  hollow 
concrete  blocks.     The  remainder  of  the  permanent   buildings  will   probably 

[  2:]!)  ] 


CTHB  I)A£TO_.DIVIDED  —crrn&  WPB^P)_TINJTED 


be  of  concrete  construction.  The  Balboa  townsite  will  be  laid  off  in  accordance 
with  the  most  approved  ideas,  and  with  the  view  of  making  it  a  model  town, 
including  the  beautification  of  its  surroundings,  as  well  as  the  grounds  about 
the  locks,  the  services  of  a  landscape  architect  were  engaged  in  July,  1913.    The 


Docks  at  Cristobal  under  construction.  With  the  Canal  practically  completed,  the  attention 
of  the  Canal  Commission  is  being  concentrated  on  the  permanent  terminal  facilities.  The  present 
plans  include  extensive  plants  at  Balboa  on  the  Pacific,  and  at  Cristobal  near  the  Atlantic  entrance. 

Commission  of  Fine  Arts  was  delegated  by  Congress  to  supervise  the  permanent 
building  work,  and  it  has  made  suggestions  from  time  to  time. 

PERMANENT    ORGANIZATION 

The  Act  of  Congress  of  August  24,  1912,  provides  for  the  appointment  of  a 
governor  of  the  Panama  Canal,  when  in  the  judgment  of  the  President,  the 
work  of  construction  shall  be  sufficiently  advanced  toward  completion  as  to 
render  the  further  services  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  unnecessary. 
The  appointment  is  to  be  made  by  the  President,  by  and  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  Senate,  and  is  effective  for  a  period  of  four  years.  The  salary  is 
$10,000  per  annum.  President  Taft,  previous  to  the  expiration  of  his  term 
of  office,  allowed  the  fact  to  become  public  that  he  intended  to  dissolve  the 
Commission  and  appoint  a  governor.  Some  Members  of  Congress  opposed  the 
plan,  one  declaring  that  it  was  not  the  purpose  of  the  Act  to  abolish  the  Com- 
mission until  it  had  completed  its  work.  President  Taft's  term  expired 
without  any  further  move  in  this  direction. 

With  the  advent  of  the  Democratic  administration,  it  was  the  general 
opinion  that  President  Wilson  would  give  the  matter  thorough  study  before 
taking  any  steps  toward  abolishing  the  Commission.  This  has  proved  to  be 
the  case,  and  it  seems  to  be  the  common  understanding  that  the  President  has 
formed  the  opinion  that  the  status  of  the  Commission  should  remain  unchanged 
until  the  great  work  is  entirely  finished  and  the  Canal  ready  to  be  officially 

[  240  ] 


J>AM-D    piVIDED  —  CX-VlEj  WOg^fi  TTNJTESD 

opened.  The  health  of  one  of  the  members  of  the  Commission,  Lieut.-Col. 
D.  D.  Gaillard  became  undermined  in  July,  1913,  and  he  was  obliged  to  return 
to  the  United  States,  at  least  temporarily.  While  no  definite  plans  for  the 
permanent  organization  have  yet  been  announced,  Colonel  Goethals  has  stated 
in  hearings  before  the  Senate  Committee  on  Interoceanic  Canals  that  the  esti- 
mated number  of  employes  required  for  the  operation  of  the  Canal,  exclusive  of 
civil  administration  and  sanitation,  and  of  the  military  establishment,  would 
be  2,500.  The  permanent  organization  of  the  Canal  administration  went  into 
effect  April  1,  1914;  Col.  George  W.  Goethals  being  appointed  first  governor. 
Colonel  Goethals,  as  governor,  will  in  connection  with  the  operation  of 
the  Canal,  have  control  and  jurisdiction  over  the  Canal  Zone,  and  will  perform 
all  duties  in  connection  with  the  civil  government  of  the  Zone,  which  is  to  be  held, 
treated,  and  governed  as  an  adjunct  of  the  Canal.  The  law  provides  for  one 
district  court  with  two  divisions,  one  including  Balboa,  and  the  other  including 
Cristobal,  each  court  to  have  jurisdiction  in  felony  cases,  and  in  all  causes  at 
equity,  admiralty,  and  all  cases  at  law  involving  sums  exceeding  $300.  In 
addition  to  a  district  judge,  there  will  be  a  marshal  and  district  attorney,  each 
holding  office  for  four  years.  The  Circuit  Court  of  Appeals  of  the  Fifth 
Circuit  of  the  United  States  at  New  Orleans,  will  have  jurisdiction  in  all  appeal 
cases.  The  provision  of  the  law  requiring  trial  by  jury  has  already  been  made 
operative  by  the  President's  Executive  Order  of  July  4,  1913. 

WIRELESS    COMMUNICATION 

The  Darien  naval  radio  station  to  be  built  at  Caimito,  a  point  in  the  Canal 
Zone  about  midway  between  Colon  and  Panama,  will  be  one  of  the  most  power- 


New  dock  No.  16  at  Colon  under  construction.     Part  of  the  Cristobal  terminal  system. 

[  241  ] 


CTHB  TvANP    DIVIDED CTTLB  WOgjyD>  TTKITED 

ful  in  the  world,  and  will  establish  direct  communication  between  the  Isthmus 
and  Washington.  In  power  it  will  be  the  same  as  the  Government's  station  at 
Arlington,  but  in  the  size  of  its  towers,  it  will  exceed  the  latter.  The  sending 
and  receiving  radius  will  be  nominally  3,000  miles,  so  that  communication  may 
be  held  direct  with  the  Arlington  station,  instead  of  via  Key  West,  as  formerly. 
It  will  be  able  to  send  messages  as  far  as  Valdivia,  Chile,  421  miles  south  of 
Valparaiso;  to  reach  a  vessel  anywhere  along  the  eastern  coast  of  the  United 
States,  or  midway  between  New  York  and  Gibraltar;  and  to  communicate  with 
the  island  of  St.  Vincent,  500  miles  west  of  Africa.  There  are  three  other 
wireless  stations  on  the  Isthmus,  not  including  one  at  Bocas  del  Toro,  main- 
tained by  the  United  Fruit  Company.  These  are  at  Porto  Bello,  Colon,  and 
Balboa,  and  all  are  in  charge  of  the  Navy  Department.  One,  or  more,  of  these 
plants  will  probably  be  dismantled  when  the  new  high  power  station  becomes 
available.  In  1912,  President  Taft  signed  an  Executive  Order  prohibiting 
the  establishment  of  wireless  stations  on  the  Isthmus  by  other  parties  within 
the  radius  of  15  miles  of  any  Government  station. 

BEAUTIFYING    THE    CANAL 

The  Panama  Canal  Act  of  August  24,  1912  contained  the  following  pro- 
vision : 

"Before  the  completion  of  the  Canal,  the  Commission  of  Fine  Arts  may 
make  report  to  the  President  of  their  recommendation  regarding  the  artistic 
character  of  the  structures  of  the  Canal,  such  report  to  be  transmitted  to 
Congress." 

In   accordance  with  the  above,   the  chairman   of  the  commission,   Mr. 


Along  a  country  road.     This  picture  vividly  portrays  the  pretty  scenery  that  greets  the 
eye  in  traveling  over  some  of  the  Canal  Zone  roads. 

[  242  ] 


Jv\ND  .  DIVIDED  — CTTBE:  WPg^fi  TINJTED 

Daniel  C.  French,  sculptor,  and  the  vice-chairman,  Mr.  Frederick  Law 
Olmsted,  landscape  architect,  spent  a  part  of  the  month  of  February,  1913,  on 
the  Isthmus.  Their  report  submitted  to  Congress  on  July  26,  1913,  states  in 
part: 

"The  Canal  itself,  and  all  the  structures  connected  with  it  impress  one  with 


A  pretty  scene  in  the  outskirts  of  Culebra  Village. 


a  sense  of  their  having  been  built  with  a  view  strictly  to  their  utility.  There  is 
an  entire  absence  of  ornament  and  no  evidence  that  the  aesthetic  has  been 
considered,  except  in  a  few  cases  as  a  secondary  consideration.  Because  of 
this  very  fact  there  is  little  to  find  fault  with  from  the  artist's  point  of  view. 
The  Canal,  like  the  pyramids,  or  some  imposing  object  in  natural  scenery,  is 
impressive  from  its  scale  and  simplicity  and  directness.  One  feels  that  any- 
thing done  merely  for  the  purpose  of  beautifying  it  would  not  only  fail  to  ac- 
complish the  purpose,  but  would  be  an  impertinence.  In  such  a  work  the  most 
that  the  artist  could  hope  to  do  would  be  to  aid  in  selecting,  as  between  alter- 
native forms  of  substantially  equal  value  from  the  engineering  point  of  view, 
those  which  are  likely  to  prove  most  agreeable  and  appropriate  in  appearance." 
The  report,  however,  made  a  number  of  suggestions  calculated  to  improve 
the  appearance  at  the  Canal  entrances,  at  the  locks,  in  the  permanent  towns,  and 
the  marine  and  army  reservations.  It  also  strongly  recommended  that  a 
memorial  record  of  the  building  of  the  Canal  be  made  in  the  form  of  an  im- 
pressive inscription  upon  a  great  monumental  surface  on  the  east  bank  of 
Culebra  Cut,  at  the  point  of  deepest  cutting,  492  feet.  It  favored  a  space  100 
feet  in  height  and  somewhat  more  in  width,  severely  simple  in  design,  with 
lettering  in  Roman  V-shaped  letters  large  enough  to  be  easily  read  by  normal 

[  243  ] 


T244] 


CTHB  TiAN-P  .  DIVIDED  —G\-l\&  W^R^-IINJTED 

eyes  across  the  Canal,  and  that  the  material  should  be  concrete  applied  as  a 
massive  facing  to  the  irregularly  fractured  trap  rock  of  the  cliff.  It  also 
suggested  marking  the  highest  point  of  Canal  excavation  on  Gold  Hill,  immedi- 
ately over  the  proposed  inscription  with  some  form  of  monument. 

The   Southern    Commercial    Congress   made   formal    application   of   the 
Secretary  of  War,  in  October,  1913,  for  permission  to  place  at  some  prominent 


Model  showing  the  Atlantic  entrance  to  the  Canal  and  the  docks  at  Cristobal,  as  they 

will  appear  when  completed. 


point  along  the  Canal  a  bronze  tablet,  four  by  six  feet  in  size,  carrying  a  medal- 
lion life  size  bust  of  the  late  Senator  John  T.  Morgan  of  Alabama,  and  legend 
reciting  his  relations  to  the  Canal  idea.  Permission  was  accorded,  and  the 
tablet  was  placed  near  the  north  end  of  Culebra  Cut  in  November,  1913. 

PERMANENT    ADMINISTRATION    BUILDING,    BALBOA 

The  permanent  Administration  Building  of  the  Canal  Zone  now  undei 
construction  in  accordance  with  the  design  made  by  Austin  W.  Lord  of 
New  York  City,  formerly  architect  to  the  Commission,  and  Mario  J.  Schia- 
voni,  former  assistant  architect,  Culbera,  under  whose  direction  the  entire  plans, 
elevations,  details,  and  specifications  have  been  developed,  is  the  result  of  many 
efforts  to  obtain  a  building  suitable  to  the  requirements  as  stipulated  by  the 
Chairman,  and  the  very  important  requirements  in  providing  protection  against 
sun  and  rain. 

The  architecture  of  Italian  renaissance  design,  with  a  square  column 
colonnade,  and  a  second-story  balcony  treatment  around  the  three  exterior 
elevations  of  the  building  and  surmounted  by  a  somber  red  tile  roof,  will  present 
a  character  very  much  to  be  desired  in  this  climate;  viz.:  wide  projecting  eaves 
and  deep  recessed  colonnades,  affording  excellent  protection  against  sun  and 
rain. 

[  245  ] 


CTHB  TvAN-D    DIVIDED GTTW  WO^D,  T UNITED 

The  court  side,  facing  northeast,  enclosed  by  the  two  side  wings,  will  have 
plain  wall  surfaces,  treated  with  pilasters  and  window  openings  of  same  pro- 
portions as  on  the  exterior  elevations,  and  a  central  wing  housing  the  main 
stair  motive  and  porte  cochere  entrance,  the  entire  plan  having  the  form  of  the 
letter  E  with  the  first  floor  situated  100  feet  above  sea  level. 

The  office  areas  are  to  be  treated  in  a  very  simple  manner  with  the  walls 
and  ceilings  treated  in  white  plaster,  the  floors  in  yellow  pine,  and  mahogany 
for  all  woodwork. 

The  rotunda  motive,  the  focal  point  of  interest,  entered  from  both  front 
and  rear  elevations,  and  situated  between  the  front  entrance  and  the  main 
stair  hall,  facing  the  court,  will  be  treated  in  a  very  dignified  but  somber 
renaissance  style  with  a  coffered  dome,  surmounting  decorative  paintings 
illustrating  the  various  periods  of  canal  construction  in  a  continuous  frieze  and 
in  four  large  panels.  The  rotunda  will  be  illuminated  by  a  dome  light  under 
a  skylight,  thereby  producing  on  a  minor  scale  the  Pantheon  at  Rome.  The 
walls,  floor,  and  staircases,  will  be  treated  in  a  simple  marble  and  Caen  stone 
treatment  in  harmony  with  the  balance  of  the  work. 

The  building  will  have  an  area  of  60,000  square  feet  of  clear  office  space 
for  the  three  floors,  plus  the  required  areas  for  the  rotunda  motive,  halls,  stair- 
cases, toilets,  exterior  colonnades,  and  balconies.  The  basement,  with  an  area 
of  32,000  square  feet,  will  be  used  as  a  vault  for  the  filing  of  records,  maps, 
archives,  etc. 

The  total  floor  area  in  the  building  taken  at  grade  will  amount  to  37,772 
square  feet,  and  the  total  (mean)  cubic  content  of  the  entire  building,  2,153,000 
cubic  feet. 

A  very  flexible  system  of  electric  lighting,  telephone,  and  buzzer  system 
has  been  provided  for,  including  the  permanent  telephone  exchange,  which  will 
be  located  on  the  third  floor  in  one  of  the  rear  wings. 

Every  convenience  of  reasonable  necessity  has  been  provided  for  in  this 
building,  such  as  fire  protection,  vacuum  system,  etc.,  thereby  setting  an  example 
for  future  buildings  by  making  this  the  most  extensive  and  up-to-date  steel 
frame  and  hollow  concrete  tile  block  structure  that  is  being  built  on  the  Isthmus 
as  a  keynote  for  future  work. 

COST    OF    THE    CANAL 

The  estimate  of  October,  1908,  placed  the  cost  of  the  Canal  at  $375,201,000 
divided,  as  follows:  Construction  and  engineering,  $297,766,000;  sanitation, 
$20,053,000;  civil  administration,  $7,382,000;  paid  to  the  New  French  Canal 
Company,  $40,000,000;  paid  to  the  Republic  of  Panama,  $10,000,000.  The 
appropriations  made  by  Congress  to  date  aggregate  $338,828,273.14  for  the 
Canal  work,  and  $10,767,950  for  fortifications.  The  actual  expenditures  to 
June  30,  1913  were  as  follows:  Construction  and  engineering,  $185,316,- 
095.75;  sanitation,  $16,250,164.93;  civil  administration,  $6,393,308.73;  law, 
$44,982.27;  general  items,  $87,866,903.70;  fortifications,  $3,114,357.52.  Total 
$298,985,812.90.  Since  1908,  the  force  has  increased  so  much  in  efficiency, 
with  a  corresponding  decrease  in  unit  costs,  that  it  seems  probable  that  $360,- 
000,000  will  cover  not  only  the  cost  of  the  Canal  work,  but  of  the  fortifications 
as  well. 

[  246] 


fUlDRE  @NAL"^™ 


HE  volume  of  traffic  that  will  pass  through  the  Panama  Canal  after  it 
has  been  thrown  open  to  commerce  of  the  world  is  largely  a  matter  of 
speculation.  The  importance  of  the  new  waterway  from  a  military 
standpoint  is  easily  recognizable,  and  in  the  minds  of  American  Army 
and  Navy  experts,  the  probable  fact  that  the  efficiency  of  Uncle  Sam's  Navy 
will  be  about  doubled,  alone  warrants  the  enormous  cost  which  the  project  has 
entailed.  In  commercial  circles,  however,  the  question  of  the  hour  is  "Can  the 
Canal  be  made  to  pay  ?" 

To  ascertain  the  probable  amount  of  tonnage  that  will  use  the  Canal 
during  the  next  few  years,  the  United  States  Government,  on  September  1,  1911, 
engaged  the  services  of  the  highest  American  authority  in  this  line,  Dr.  Emory 
R.  Johnson,  professor  of  transportation  and  commerce  in  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania.  •  As  special  commissioner  on  traffic  and  tolls,  Dr.  Johnson  has 
made  an  exhaustive  investigation  of  the  subject  from  all  points  of  view,  the 
results  of  which  have  been  incorporated  in  a  printed  volume  of  500  pages.  His 
conclusions  may  be  briefly  summed  up,  as  follows: 

"The  shipping  using  the  Panama  Canal  annually  during  the  first  year  or 
two  of  its  operation,  that  is,  in  1915  and  1916,  will  amount  to  about  10,500,000 
tons.  At  the  end  of  10  years,  the  tonnage  will  doubtless  have  reached  17,- 
000,000  tons.  The  prospect  is,  therefore,  that  the  Panama  Canal  will  start  with 
less  than  half  the  tonnage  which  will  then  be  making  use  of  the  Suez  Canal. 
Moreover,  it  will  be  a  long  time  before  the  Panama  Canal  catches  up  with  the 
Suez  waterway  in  volume  of  traffic.  Should  the  Suez  tonnage  continue  to 
increase  at  the  present  rate,  the  volume  of  shipping  served  by  the  Suez  route  in 
1925  will  be  double  that  passing  through  the  Panama  Canal.  It  is  hardly 
probable  that  the  Suez  tonnage  will  increase  at  its  present  high  rate,  while  it 
may  well  happen  that  the  stimulating  effect  of  the  Panama  Canal  upon  industry 
and  trade  has  been  underestimated.  Eventually,  at  the  end  of  two  or  three 
decades,  let  us  say,  the  traffic  at  Panama  may  equal  or  exceed  that  at  Suez." 

[  247  1 


[248} 


CTFIB  Tv\NP  .  DIVIDED  -^gTHB  WOI3LkD>  TTKITED 

Dr.  Johnson  gave  publicity  to  the  above  forecast  in  1912,  and  his  frank 
admission  that  his  figures  may  be  underestimated  indicates  that  it  is  not  in  the 
power  of  man  to  closely  foretell  the  volume  of  traffic  the  Canal  will  attract. 
It  is  only  within  the  past  twelvemonth  that  steamship  companies,  and  firms 
engaged  in  the  wholesale  coal  and  fuel  oil  trade,  have  awakened  to  the  possi- 
bilities evoked  by  the  Canal.  If  reports  that  are  constantly  noted  in  the  daily 
press  are  true,  nearly  every  company  engaged  in  ocean  transportation  in  this 
part  of  the  world  is  perfecting  plans  for  building  additional  ships  in  anticipation 
of  the  increased  business  the  Canal  will  create.  Since  fuel  oil  and  coal-handling 
facilities  at  the  Canal  termini  were  planned,  and  the  policy  of  the  Government 
in  respect  to  the  sale  of  these  two  commodities  by  individuals  and  companies, 


The  tourist  steamer  Evangeline,  the  first  vessel  to  dock  at  Pier  16,  Cristobal,  January,  1913. 

on  the  Isthmus,  was  outlined,  there  has  been  an  unexpected  amount  of  interest 
shown  in  this  feature  by  firms  in  the  United  States  and  Europe.  Applications 
for  coal  storage  space  had,  prior  to  the  awarding  of  the  coal-handling  ma- 
chinery, been  so  much  greater  than  anticipated,  that  enlargements  of  the  pro- 
posed layout  in  some  of  its  essentials  became  imperative.  Close  observers  of 
the  trend  of  the  times  say  that  Dr.  Johnson's  figures  are  sufficiently  conserva- 
tive. 

Latin-America,  particularly  the  west  coast  of  South  America,  is  con- 
fidently counted  on  to  contribute  largely  to  the  tonnage  of  the  Canal.  Chile, 
Bolivia,  Peru,  and  Ecuador,  all  originate  a  large  freight  traffic.  The  nitrate 
fields  of  Northern  Chile  yield  an  annual  product  of  more  than  2,500,000  tons, 
four-fifths  of  which  goes  to  Europe,  and  the  remainder  to  the  United  States; 
copper  shipments  from  Peru  and  Bolivia  are  increasing  annually  in  importance 
with  the  opening  of  additional  mines  and  the  construction  of  railroads.     Rail- 

[  249  ] 


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f250] 


g[ME^J>AM-D    piVIDED gTHB  WOELkD,  TTNJTED 

road  building  in  those  countries,  south  of  the  Equator,  has  enjoyed  a  tre- 
mendous expansion  in  the  last  few  years.  Argentina  has  been  brought  in  touch 
with  Valparaiso  by  the  Andean  tunnel,  and  the  products  of  the  western  part 
of  that  republic  will,  in  all  probability,  be  shipped  through  the  Canal.  The  port 
of  Valparaiso,  which  was  almost  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1906,  has  fully 
recovered  from  its  effects,  and  has  contracted  for  port  works  costing  millions 
of  dollars  in  anticipation  of  the  opening  of  the  Canal. 

At  present,  American  commerce  plays  but  a  minor  role  in  the  west  coast 
trade,  although,  owing  to  the  increasing  number  of  American  investments,  the 
trade  is  improving.     Germany  and  Great  Britain  have  long  had  the  lion's 


The  Polar  Ship  Fram,  lying  at  anchor  in  Cristobal  Harbor.  This  boat  left  Buenos  Aires  on 
August  14,  1913,  and  reached  Colon  on  October  3,  for  the  purpose  of  passing  through  the  Canal 
on  its  way  to  San  Francisco.     It  will  be  one  of  the  first  vessels  to  make  the  passage. 

share,  and  it  will  be  many  years  before  their  hold  can  be  broken.  The  fault  is 
our  own.  European  emigrants,  and  representatives  of  European  firms,  went 
to  those  countries  in  an  early  day;  they  intermarried  with  the  native  residents, 
and  many  became  citizens  who  afterward  rose  to  prominence  in  public  life. 
On  the  other  hand,  prior  to  the  Spanish-American  War,  these  countries  knew 
few  Americans,  with  the  exception  of  tourists.  We  kept  to  our  own  borders,  and 
established  neither  social  nor  business  relations,  and  as  for  going  there  to  live, 
it  was  not  to  be  thought  of.  Moreover,  the  American  manufacturer  has  in  the 
past  shown  scant  desire  to  cultivate  business  relations  with  his  Latin-American 
neighbor;  they  have  elected  to  ignore  his  requirements,  and  scoffed  at  his  busi- 
ness customs.     The  European  never  commits  this/au.r  pas. 

[  251  ] 


Moonlight  on  Limon  Bay.     When  the  rose  and  mauve  and  green  have  faded,  the  tropical 
moon  appears,  which  is  nowhere  more  effulgent  than  on  the  Isthmus. 


Roosevelt  Avenue,  the  prettiest  street  in  Cristobal,  overlooking  Limon  Bay  and  the  Atlantic 
entrance  to  the  Canal.  The  beauty  of  this  street  and  the  outlook  has  been  marred  by  the  building 
of  the  docks  at  this  point. 

[  252  ] 


CT-RB  Tv\NP  .  DIVIDED  ^TBEl^WO^Jj^  TTNJTED 

The  Spanish-American  War  was  the  entering  wedge;  the  Panama  Canal 
affid  other  large  projects  in  Central  and  South  America  requiring  American 
brain  and  brawn  has  widened  the  opening,  until  today  one  will  find  plenty  of 
Americans  scattered  all  over  Latin-America.     A  large  percentage  of  those  who 


Native  town  at  Culebra.     Negro  village  of  Golden  Green  in  middle  distance, 
villages  will  be  abandoned  in  course  of  time. 


These 


enlisted  in  the  Philippine,  Cuban,  or  Porto  Rican  campaigns,  those  who  have 
seen  service  on  the  Panama  Canal,  or  those  who  have  engaged  in  railroad  and 
mining  work  in  Brazil,  Peru,  or  Chile,  never  go  back  to  the  United  States  to 
reside  permanently.  Some  of  them  leave  the  tropics  with  the  avowed  intention 
of  never  returning,  but  sooner  or  later,  one  will  find  them  at  a  steamship  office 
engaging  passage  southward  bound.  The  lure  of  the  tropics  is  not  easily 
overcome. 

The  Americanizing  of  Latin-America  has  only  just  begun;  it  would  not 
have  been  begun  yet  but  for  those  prime  factors,  the  War  and  the  Canal.  As 
Americans  locate  in  Central  and  South  America,  the  call  grows  more  and  more 
insistent  for  conveniences  to  which  they  have  been  accustomed — American 
banks,  clubs,  newspapers,  stores,  and  merchandise.  The  influence  of  the 
Latinized  American  is  seen  in  the  gradual  improvement  of  conditions,  all  of 
which,  while  minute  in  detail  in  connection  with  the  trade  of  the  Canal,  has  a 
direct  bearing  on  its  future  so  far  as  it  concerns  traffic  with  South  America. 

The  Panama  Canal  will  place  the  United  States  and  Europe  about  on  a 
par  so  far  as  it  concerns  the  commerce  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand.  The 
same  is  true  of  Japan,  China,  and  the  Philippines.     The  short  route  from 

[  253  ] 


Ij^j^P  divided — cri\&*wom}E>>  tinjted 


Europe  to  the  Orient  is  by  way  of  Suez;  the  short  course  from  the  Atlantic  coast 
of  the  United  States  to  Japan  and  most  of  China  will  be  by  way  of  Panama.  A 
10-knot  freight  steamer  will  be  able  to  make  the  voyage  from  New  York  to 
Yokohama  by  way  of  Panama  in  15  days'  less  time  than  it  now  takes  by  way  of 
Suez.  Hong  Kong  and  Manila  will  be  equally  distant  from  New  York  by  way 
of  Panama  or  Suez. 

The  tonnage  through  the  Suez  Canal  has  shown  a  steady  growth.  In  1910, 
it  was  16,500,000  tons;  in  1912,  it  had  increased  to  20,275,000  tons,  representing 
the  passage  of  5,373  vessels.  The  Suez  Company  in  commenting  on  the 
approaching  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal  said,  "It  does  not  seem  likely  that 
any  considerable  amount  of  freight  between  Europe  and  ports  beyond  Suez  will 
be  diverted  by  the  Panama  Canal.  It  is  to  be  feared,  though,  that  one  of  the 
results  of  the  opening  of  the  new  route  will  be  the  attendant  competition,  and 
possibly  a  newborn  trade  between  the  eastern  states  of  America,  and  the  Far 
East  and  Oceanica."  The  increase  in  Canal  traffic  is  not  confined  to  the  Suez, 
for,  in  July,  1913,  3,670  vessels  carrying  12,278,000  tons  of  freight  passed 
through  the  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Canal,  a  larger  volume  than  Dr.  Johnson  predicts 
for  the  Panama  Canal  during  the  first  year  or  two  of  operation. 

While  much  has  been  printed  to  show  how  the  freight  business  will  be 
advantaged  by  the  Panama  Canal,  there  has  been  but  little  mention  of  the  pas- 
senger traffic.  It  is  quite  certain  that  travelers  to  South  America,  or  to  the 
Orient,  will  prefer  the  Panama  route  to  the  long  and  usually  tempestuous  voyage 
around  South  America,  or  to  the  terrific  heat  of  the  Red  Sea.     The  passage 


A  street  in  the  American  settlement  at  Empire,  showing  family  quarters, 
and  about  Empire  is  justly  considered  the  most  effective  in  the  Canal  Zone, 
grow  here  in  great  profusion. 

(  254  ] 


The  landscape  in 
The  short  palms 


Jv\N-P  .  DIVIDED CTHE  WORkD>  TTKITED 


v->. 


Main  entrance  to  the  new  Hotel 
Washington,  Colon. 


through  the  Panama  Canal  will 
afford  an  opportunity  for  the  tired 
traveler  to  land,  and  if  he  so  de- 
sires, to  cross  the  Isthmus  by  rail. 
The  Isthmus,  therefore,  will  be  a 
sort  of  clearing  house  for  pas- 
senger traffic.  People  coming 
from  Europe  and  eastern  or 
southern  United  States  will 
change  there  for  the  Orient, 
western  United  States,  and 
western  South  America. 

The  closing  years  of  the  con- 
struction period  of  the  Canal  has 
attracted  a  growing  number  of 
tourists,  until  at  the  present  time, 
it  is  just  as  much  a  booking  point 
for  the  tourist  agencies  as  any 
other  place  of  interest  the  world 
has  to  offer.  Statistics  compiled 
to  July  1,  1913,  show  that  about 
75,000  people  have  visited  the 
Canal  since  January  1, 1910,  over 
one-half  of  that  number  within 
the  past  18  months. 

The  following  table  of  com- 
parative distances  will  show 
some  of  the  shortening  of  routes 
the  Panama  Canal    will   effect: 


A  typical  street  in  Cristobal.  There  are  cocoanut  palms  on  every  street  in  this  pretty  Canal 
Zone  settlement,  while  banana  trees  and  other  tropic  growth  adorn  the  grass  plots  in  front 
of  the  houses. 

[  255  ] 


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HE  Panama  of  today  affords  a  striking  contrast  to  the  Panama  of 
yesterday.  Although  only  a  decade  has  elapsed  since  it  became  a 
republic  and  self-governing,  the  country  has  made  a  wonderful  stride 
forward  in  progress  and  well-being.  It  cannot  be  supposed  that  this 
change  would  have  been  wrought  so  rapidly  without  the  beneficent  influence  of 
its  Northern  mentor,  for  years  of  tyranny,  of  bickerings,  of  petty  jealousies,  and 
of  political  dictation  generally  leave  an  impress  not  easily  eradicated.  The 
Panama  of  revolutionary  times  when  lust  for  power  ruled,  and  when  brother 
rose  up  against  brother  for  no  reason  on  earth  save  to  depose  an  administration 
unpopular  with  some  particular  faction,  is  no  more.  Yet  some  of  the  older 
citizens  sigh  for  the  good  old  days,  when,  as  the  saying  is  "A  revolution  was 
born  every  minute."  A  newer  generation  is  springing  up,  a  generation  that  knows 
naught  of  war,  and  whose  mission  it  will  be  to  enter  heartily  into  the  arts  of 
peace  and  husbandry,  for  the  art  of  war  is  one  from  which  Panama  is  forever 
divorced,  and  "Pro  Miindo  Beneficio"  (For  the  benefit  of  the  World),  is  its 
adopted  motto  for  the  future. 

The  history  of  Panama  after  the  raids  of  the  buccaneers  is  a  history  of 
countless  revolutions,  of  plot  and  counterplot,  of  intolerable  exactions  on  the 
part  of  the  mother  country,  and  of  repeated  attempts  at  independence.  Like 
nearly  all  Latin-American  countries,  there  were  two  main  parties,  Liberal  and 
Conservative.  When  not  welded  together  for  the  moment  in  indignant  protest 
against  some  special  act  of  injustice  on  the  part  of  parent  Colombia,  these 
parties  in  Panama  were  continually  fighting  for  control  of  such  offices  as 
Colombia  permitted  it  to  fill.  A  constitutional  election  was  unknown  up  to  a 
year  ago,  and  victory  at  the  polls  was  usually  dependent  on  fraud,  and  by  right 
of  might.  The  Conservatives,  who,  in  the  past,  represented  the  more  prosper- 
ous element,  generally  held  the  reins  of  power,  and  instead  of  using  this  power 

[  258  ] 


CTRB  TvAKP    DIVIDED CfHE  ^ORbR  JTXITED 


for  the  good  of  all  the  people,  treated 
their  political  opponents  as  personal 
enemies  entitled  to  no  consideration. 
The  revolution  of  1900-1902,  one  of 
the  most  sanguinary  struggles  in  which 
the  Isthmian  partisans  ever  became 
engaged,  was  started  in  Colombia, 
where  the  Jesuits,  who  constituted  a 
dominant  factor  in  affairs  of  church 
and  state,  had  started  a  campaign 
against  the  Liberals.  The  fight  invol- 
ved every  settled  part  of  the  Isthmus, 
and  the  failure  of  the  local  Liberal 
army  to  win  victory  at  that  time  was 
due  to  the  generosity  of  Gen.  Emiliano 
Herrera,  who  laid  siege  to  Panama 
City,  and  who,  willing  to  give  the 
women  and  children  a  chance  to  es- 
cape the  bombardment,  postponed 
his  attack,  thereby  giving  the  enemy 
opportunity  to  strengthen  its  defenses. 
Dr.  Belisario  Porras,  the  present 
Chief  Executive  of  Panama,  was  one 
of  the  principal  Liberal  leaders  in 
this  campaign. 


DR.    BELISARIO   PORRAS, 
President  of'  the  Republic  of  Panama. 


National  Palace  and  Theatre,  Panama  City.     It  cost  $1,000,000  and  is  the  finest  edifice 

in  the  Republic  of  Panama. 

[  259  ] 


CTHB  TvANP  .DIVIDED CTTftE  WOBJyP,  TTKITED 

The  last  revolution,  that  of  November  3,  1903,  when  Panama  seceded  from 
Colombia,  was  a  bloodless  affair,  devoid  of  spectacular  incident,  but  it  gave 
birth  to  a  new  republic  and  made  the  Panama  Canal  an  assured  fact.  The  part 
that  the  United  States  took  in  the  event  has  been  discussed  pro  and  con.  It 
suffices  to  say  that  while  the  American  Government  did  not  actively  interest 
itself  in  the  cause,  it  smiled  broadly  at  the  plot,  and  prevented  any  chance  that 
the  Colombian  troops  might  have  had  to  avert  the  disaster,  by  prohibiting  their 
transport  over  the  Panama  Railroad  on  the  pretext  of  keeping  the  transit  clear, 
which  was  all  the  Panamerios  wanted. 

The  "handwriting  on  the  wall"  was  seen  when  the  Colombian  Congress 
deliberately  turned  down  President  Roosevelt's  generous  proposal  for  the 
purchase  of  the  Canal  strip  at  $10,000,000.  On  their  own  admission  they 
wanted  more,  for  the  reason  they  thought  they  could  get  it  by  asking  for  it. 
Roosevelt's  hidden  note  of  warning  should  have  been  enough,  but  Deputy 


Electioneering  in  the  interior  of  Panama  is  done  on  horseback.     The  man  in  front,  under 
the  flags,  was  one  of  the  candidates  for  President  in  the  last  election. 

Velez  and  his  followers  thought  they  would  call  what  they  regarded  as  a  blufT — 
and  they  did,  but  with  an  unexpected  result.  The  Isthmians  knew  the  temper 
of  their  compatriots,  so  the  action  of  the  Colombian  Congress  was  no  surprise 
to  them.  The  treaty  was  defeated  by  Colombia  on  August  12,  1903;  the  flag 
of  the  new  republic  was  raised  on  November  3,  three  months  later;  Panama  was 

[  260  ] 


T^AKD    DIVIDED CTfiB  WORDS,  TT! 


recognized  by  the  United  States  on  November  6,  1903;  the  Canal  treaty  with 
Panama  was  signed  at  Washington  on  November  18,  1903;  it  was  ratified  by 
Panama  on  December  2,  1903,  and  by  the  United  States  Senate  on  February  24, 
1904.     Quick  work  all  around. 

THE    PANAMA    FLAG 

Miss  Maria  Emilia  de  la  Ossa,  a 
niece  of  the  first  president  of  Panama, 
Dr.  Manuel  Amador  Guerrero,  is  the  de- 
signer of  the  flag  of  the  republic,  which 
was  hung  from  the  balcony  of  Dr.  Ama- 
dor's house  on  November  4,  1903,  when 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  was 
signed  in  Cathedral  Park.  The  flag 
was  presented  to  President  Roosevelt 
when  the  United  States  recognized  the 
independence  of  Panama.  The  two 
stars  that  adorn  the  banner  represent 
the  two  national  parties,  Liberal  and 
Conservative. 


The  two  stars  in  the  flag  are  red  and  blue  on 
white  background;  the  opposite  corners  are 
red  and  blue,  making  the  combination  red, 
■white  and  blue. 


NATIONAL    HYMN    OF    THE    REPUBLIC    OF    PANAMA 

Chorus 

Panama!  Land  of  all  our  Devotion! 

Hail  to  thee,  Union  true,  Union  grand! 

Speed  thy  glory  from  ocean  to  ocean ! 

To  our  Nation  we  pledge  heart  and  hand! 

Speed  thy  glory  -from  ocean  to  ocean ! 

To  our  Nation  we  pledge  heart  and  hand. 

Like  the  surge  on  our  shore  ever  sounding. 

In  each  heart  rings  the  song  of  the  Free; 

Peace  and  Love  with  their  wings  all  surrounding, 

Loyal  sons  give  their  lives  unto  thee. 

Onward  still  be  the  course  of  our  Nation, 

As  the  waves  of  the  deep  swiftly  glide, 

Thro'  the  Age  shall  our  land  take  its  station 

With  the  grand  of  the  earth  side  by  side. 

'Tis  to  thee,  Land  of  Love,  we  are  plighted, 
And  the  din  of  the  strife  now  is  o'er, 
Once  again,  brothers  all,  we're  united, 
While  the  Flag  of  the  Free  guards  our  shore! 
Brightly  gleams  now  the  star  of  our  Union 
Still  for  Peace  and  for  Fame  may  it  shine, 
All  our  hearts  and  our  lives,  in  communion, 
Till  the  last  stroke  of  Time  shall  be  thine. 

THE    RECONSTRUCTION    PERIOD 

The  period  1904-1912  may  be  termed  one  of  reconstruction.     The  blighting 
influence  exercised  by  Colombia  over  Panama  made  the  latter,  in  many  respects, 

[  261  ] 


The  high  lands  offer  a  pleasant  and  cool  climate  where  all  vegetation  peculiar  to  the  tropical 
zone  flourishes.  The  scenery  along  the  streams  is  fine;  ferns  and  orchids  of  many  kinds  abound 
and  splendid  hardwood  trees  tower  over  the  evergreen  underbrush. 


[  262  ] 


JE^I)AN-D_.  DIVIDED  <-*~Gy~l\&  WPRfeB»>  TJNjTED 


100  years  behind  the  times.  The  new  government  made  a  good  start  by  dis- 
banding its  small  army  late  in  1904.  The  army  in  nearly  every  Latin-American 
country  is  a  bone  of  contention  for  the  opposing  political  factions,  for  success  is 
practically  assured  in  case  the  aspirant  for  the  presidency  wins  over  the  troops. 
In  the  case  of  Panama,  Gen.  Esteban  Huertas,  the  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army,  who,  by  casting  in  his  lot  with  the  Panamenos,  made  the  secession  move- 
ment doubly  assured,  became  discontented  a  year  later,  and  framed  a  plan  for 
unseating  President  Amador.  The  plot  was  uncovered,  Amador  appealed  to 
the  American  Legation,  and  Huertas  was  plainly  advised  that  if  he  made  one 
move  the  American  marines  would  take  the  situation  in  hand.  No  move  was 
made  and  this  act  marked  the  end  of  Panama's  standing  army.     Panama  needs 


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Christening  of  the  Panama  Flag,  November  3,  1903,  the  date  of  the  last  revolution  in  Panama. 


no  internal  system  of  defense,  as  peace  is  forever  guaranteed  by  the  United 
States. 

The  American  Government  exercises  over  Panama  a  mild  form  of  guardian- 
ship. It  will  prevent  any  intrusion  by  outsiders;  it  will  safeguard  its  health,  and, 
in  case  of  necessity,  supervise  its  elections.  It  will  not,  as  many  think,  annex 
Panama.  Former  President  Taft,  when  Secretary  of  War,  gave  advance  notice 
of  what  the  policy  of  the  United  States  toward  Panama  would  be  in  December, 
1904,  when,  speaking  to  an  out-of-door  assemblage  from  the  balcony  of  the 
Hotel  Central,  in  Panama,  he  said: 

"My  government  does  not  covet  one  cent  of  Panama's  money,  or  one  acre 
of  her  land,  but  in  the  face  of  a  probable  outlay  of  $300,000,000,  it  is  absolutely 
essential  that  a  thorough  and  close  understanding  be  maintained  between  the 
two  governments." 

This  attitude  has  been  religiously  observed,  and,  barring  the  possibility  of 

[  263  ] 


CTHE  TiAN-E)    DIVIDED  ~^<?n\E  WOGLkD,  TTHITED 


some  rash  act  on  the  part  of  Panama,  remote  at  best,  will  continue  to  be  ob- 
served. 


"the  land  of  the  cocoanut  tree' 


Crook  your  finger  slightly,  and  you  will  have  a  fair  idea  of  the  American 
Isthmus,  practically  the  whole  of  which  is  included  within  the  limits  of  the 
Republic  of  Panama.  The  area  of  the  country  can  only  be  estimated,  as  no 
actual  survey  has  ever  been  made;  and  is  approximately  32,000  square  miles, 
based  upon  the  east  and  west  boundaries,  as  claimed,  for,  to  date,  neither  the 
frontier  on  the  Costa  Rica  side,  nor  that  bordering  on  Colombia,  has  been  deter- 
mined. The  Panama-Costa  Rican  boundary  question  was  submitted  for 
arbitration  to  former  President  Loubet  of  France,  but  the  Costa  Rican  govern- 


MEMBERS  OF  PRESIDENT  PORRAS'  CABINET. 

DON  GUILLERMO  ANDREVE,  DON  RAMON  F.  ACEVEDO,  DON  ERNESTO  T.  LEFEVRE, 

Secretary  of  Public  Instruction.  Secretary  of  Public  Works.  Secretary  of  Foreign  Relations. 

[  264  ] 


CTHE  TiAN-P  ,  DIVIDED -^CTHE:  WOObR  JT 

ment  refused  to  abide  by  his  decision,  which,  for  the  most  part,  sustained 
Panama's  contentions,  and  the  matter  is  now  before  another  tribunal.  A 
tripartite  treaty  was  arranged  by  the  United  States  in  1912,  to  be  signed  by  it, 
Panama,  and  Colombia.  The  proposed  convention  defined  the  boundaries  and 
gave  Colombia  a  sum  of  money — conscience  money,  it  has  been  called  by  some. 
Colombia  rejected  the  terms,  and  negotiations  have  since  been  begun  all  over 
again  with  some  prospects  of  success. 

The  republic,  while  less  than  one-eighth  the  size  of  the  state  of  Texas, 
has  room  for  ten  Montenegros.     The  total  land  frontier  will  not  exceed  350 


The  President's  Residence,  Panama  City. 

miles,  while  the  coast  line  on  both  oceans  aggregates  1,245  miles.  Its  greatest 
length  east  and  west  is  about  430  miles.  The  country  is  bisected  with  hills  and 
valleys  ramifying  from  a  Cordillera,  or  backbone,  running  irregularly  throughout 
its  length,  ascending  in  some  places  to  peaks  of  considerable  height,  and 
descending  in  others  to  comparatively  low  elevations  like  the  pass  at  Culebra. 
Toward  the  sea  on  either  side,  the  slopes  end  in  wide,  alluvial  plains  created  by 
successive  deposits  of  silt  brought  down  by  the  rivers.  Chiriqui  volcano  is  the 
highest  peak  in  the  republic,  11,500  feet,  which,  according  to  Mr.  D.  F. 
MacDonald,  geologist  of  the  Canal  Commission,  has  been  extinct  for  175,000 
years.  Both  coasts  are  girt  with  islands  and  indented  by  numerous  bays.  The 
islands  number  over  1,700,  Coiba,  off  the  south  coast,  being  the  largest.  The  Bay 
of  Panama  constitutes  the  largest  embayment,  extending  from  Cape  Garachine 
on  the  east  to  Cape  Malo  on  the  west,  a  distance  of  100  miles  in  a  direct  line. 
Over  150  streams  empty  into  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  300  into  the  Pacific 
Ocean.     The  largest  is  the  Tuyra  in  the  Darien  region;  the  Santa  Maria,  empty- 

[  265  ] 


HHHH 


<&> 


Bull  fights  are  now  prohibited,  but  cock  fights  are  still  a  popular  sport.  Much  money  has 
been  and  is  being  spent  in  the  building  of  fine  macadamized  roads.  The  street  traffic  in  Panama 
City  is  largely  carried  on  by  means  of  two-wheeled  carts  drawn  by  one  of  the  small  native  horses 
or  mules.  In  this  particular  scene  Panamanian  silver  money  is  being  carted  to  the  car  to  pay 
off  laborers. 


[  266  ] 


CTHE  Tv\N-P  .  DIVIDED CTftE  WOMJ^TU^ITgD 

ing  into  Parita  Bay,  is  believed  to  be  second  in  size,  with  the  Chagres  River, 
feeder  of  Gatun  Lake,  third. 

The  republic  is  divided  into  seven  provinces,  namely,  Bocas  del  Toro, 
Chiriqui,  Code,  Colon,  Los  Santos,  Panama,  and  Veraguas.  Panama  province 
is  much  the  largest  embracing  that  region  as  yet  unreclaimed  from  the  Indian 
tribes,  known  as  the  Darien.  Panama  City  is  the  federal  as  well  as  provincial 
capital.  After  the  sack  of  Old  Panama  by  Morgan,  the  survivors  moved  to  the 
site  of  the  present  city,  five  miles  to  the  west,  its  founding  dating  from  January 
21,  1673.  In  1904,  when  the  Americans  came,  the  city  had  a  little  over  20,000 
inhabitants;  the  government  census  of  1911  gave  it  37,50o,  and  in  1913,  it  was 
estimated  to  have  50,000.     Colon,  the  second  city  in  size,  situated  on  Manzanillo 


Plaza  de  la  Independencia,  or  Central  Park,  Panama  City.  The  public  parks  are  the  favorite 
meeting  places  of  the  masses.  Band  concerts  are  held  every  Sunday  and  Thursday  evenings. 
The  natives  assemble  in  their  gala  clothes,  together  with  a  cosmopolitan  mixture  of  races. 

Island,  was  a  miserable  village  of  4,000  souls  in  1904,  built  over  a  bog,  but  has 
since  grown  to  an  enterprising  well-ordered  town  of  25,000  or  more,  a  gain  of 
over  600  per  cent  in  the  past  ten  years.  Panama  City  today  enjoys  most  of  the 
conveniences  of  any  city  of  its  size,  including  taxicabs  and  an  electric  street 
railway,  which  were  placed  in  service  in  August,  1913.  Colon,  also,  has  a 
tramway  under  construction.  The  future  appears  bright  for  these  two  cities, 
owing  to  their  proximity  to  the  Canal  termini.  David,  the  capital  of  Chiriqui 
province,  is  the  third  largest  city,  while  Bocas  del  Toro,  built  up  by  the  banana 
interests  of  the  United  Fruit  Company,  ranks  fourth. 

GOVERNMENT    IS    PROGRESSIVE 

The  present  administration  is  headed  by  Dr.  Belisario  Porras,  a  leader  of 
the  Liberals,  who  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  revolution  of  1900,  and  who  is  a 

[  267  ] 


erHB  TvAN-D  .  DIVIDED  -*-CTI\&  WOBJbEU[TXITED 


thorough  progressive.  He  was  inaugurated  on  October  1,  1912,  after  an  ex- 
ceedingly hard  fought  campaign,  and  is  called  Panama's  first  constitutional 
president.  In  view  of  possible  attempts  at  fraud,  the  United  States  was  called 
upon  to  supervise  the  election,  and  did  so.  In  his  pre-election  speeches,  Dr. 
Porras  promised  the  people  of  the  country  certain  reforms,  and  many  of  these 
reforms  are  being  brought  about.  When  he  took  office,  the  national  treasury 
was  empty,  and  a  considerable  amount  was  owing  to  the  local  banks  on  loans. 
In  less  than  six  months  all  debts  were  paid,  and,  in  August,  1913,  there  was  a 
balance  in  the  treasury  of  over  $350,000,  not  including  the  first  of  the  annual 
payments  of  $250,000  made  by  the  United  States  in  1913,  under  the  Treaty. 

The  national  constitution,  providing  for  a  centralized  republican  form  of 
government,  went  into  effect  on  February  24,  1904.     The  president  is  elected  by 


Panama  City  as  it  appears  from  Ancon  Hill.  This  is  the  capital  of  the  Republic  of  Panama 
and  is  situated  close  to  the  Pacific  entrance  to  the  Canal.  It  has  about  40,000  inhabitants,  including 
almost  every  nationality  on  the  globe. 

popular  vote,  for  a  term  of  four  years,  and  cannot  succeed  himself.  The 
elections  are  held  in  July,  and  the  successful  candidate  takes  the  oath  of  office 
on  the  first  of  October,  following.  He  receives  a  salary  of  $9,000  per  annum,  with 
an  allowance  for  household  expenses  and  extra  official  purposes.  He  appoints  all 
the  higher  officials,  including  members  of  his  cabinet,  judges  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  diplomatic  and  consular  representatives,  and  the  governors  of  provinces. 
He  is  assisted  in  his  duties  by  a  cabinet  of  five  members,  consisting  of  a  secretary 
of  finance,  secretary  of  foreign  relations,  secretary  of  government  and  justice, 
secretary  of  public  instruction,  and  secretary  of  public  works.  In  case  of  death, 
the  duties  of  the  president  devolve  on  the  Primer  Dcsignado.  There  are  three 
of  these  designados,  which  correspond  to  the  titles  of  first,  second,  and  third 
vice-president,  respectively.     The  lawmaking  branch  of  the  government  is  a 

[  268  ] 


& 


While  Panama  City  as  a  whole,  has  quite  an  antiquated  appearance,  there  are  a  number  of 
up-to-date  stores  which  import  the  latest  creations,  direct  from  Paris.  The  Palm  Garden  in  the 
Hotel  Central  is  a  popular  meeting  place,  especially  on  Sunday  evenings  after  the  band  concert 
in  the  park. 


[  269  ] 


CTHE  TvAN-P_t  DIVIDED gfHE  WQ^jyg>_TIliJTED 


single  body  known  as  the  national  assembly,  consisting  of  deputies  elected  for 
a  term  of  two  years  in  much  the  same  manner  as  United  States  Congressmen. 
The  administration  of  justice  is  vested  in  a  superior  court,  circuit  courts,  district 
courts,  and  such  inferior  tribunals  as  may  be  established  by  law.  The  superior 
holds  court  in  Panama  City,  and  consists  of  five  judges.  In  a  general  way, 
foreigners  enjoy  the  same  rights  and  privileges  before  the  tribunals  of  the 
country  as  citizens  do. 

REVENUES 

The  national  finances  are  in  an  excellent  condition.  The  sum  of  $6,000,- 
000,  the  balance  of  the  $10,000,000  paid  Panama  by  the  United  States  for  the 
canal  strip,  is  loaned  on  first-class  New  York  mortgages,  drawing  4|  per  cent 
interest  annually.  This  interest,  about  $272,000,  together  with  the  following 
approximate  amounts,  form  the  fixed  annual  revenues  of  the  republic:  Canal 
Zone  rental,  $250,000;  interest  on  the  sum  to  guarantee  the  parity  of  money, 
$9,000;  interest  from  funds  in  the  National  Bank  of  the  Republic,  $33,750; 
rents  of  public  market  and  dock,  $40,000;  rents  from  lots  in  Colon,  $26,000; 
interest  on  bonds  of  the  National  Navigation  Company,  $2,450.  Total, 
$633,200.  Added  to  this  are  the  customs  duties  and  consular  fees,  estimated 
at  $4,189,986  for  1913;  and  internal  revenue  collections  estimated  at  $500,000.. 
The  budget  of  expenses  for  1913  is  estimated  at  $3,841,214.  The  country  has 
no  national  debt,  and  there  is  no  probability  of  its  ever  having  one.  All  imports 
into  the  republic,  with  the  exception  of  certain  articles  on  which  a  higher  tax  is 
imposed,  are  subject  to  a  duty  of  15  per  cent.  Liquors  of  all  kinds,  matches,  salt, 
cigars,  cigarettes,  and  tobacco,  coffee,  etc.,  are  subject  to  a  special  tax.     The 


Panama  Bay  at  high  tide.     A  part  of  Panama  City  and  Ancon  Hill  in  the  background. 

L  270  ] 


CTHE,  hANP  .  DIVIDED — -C\-T\Ej  WPD^g^UJjJTEg 

importation  of  opium  is  now  prohibited  by  law.  Foreign  patents  and  trade 
marks  may  be  registered  upon  application  to  the  Secretary  of  Public  Works 
(Fomento),  and  the  payment  of  the  required  fee. 

NATIONAL    CURRENCY 

The  monetary  unit  is  the  Balboa,  having  a  fixed  value  of  one  dollar  in  gold. 
Under  the  Treaty  Panama  agreed  to  maintain  its  coinage  at  a  parity  of  2  to  1, 


Cayucos  or  small  boats,  shown  in  the  picture,  are  hollowed  out  of  a  single  log,  and  are  used 
on  the  interior  rivers  to  bring  down  bananas  and  other  fruits;  they  are  either  poled  or  paddled 
from  the  stern. 

and  accordingly  there  have  been  minted  silver  coins  in  50-cent,  25-cent,  10-cent, 
and  5-cent  denominations,  and  nickel  coins  in  2^-cent  and  |-cent  denomina- 
tions, known  as  peso,  medio  peso,  dos  reales,  real,  medio,  and  cuartillo,  respective- 
ly. In  1904,  Colombian  silver  currency  was  the  only  medium  of  exchange,  with 
the  exception  of  a  small  amount  of  American  currency  then  in  circulation.  The 
Colombian  money  was  retired  when  the  new  coinage  was  issued.  The  local 
currency  would  long  ago  have  proved  inadequate  for  the  growing  commercial 
transactions  of  the  country  had  it  not  been  for  the  enormous  amount  of  American 
money  in  circulation.  American  gold  figures  exclusively  in  all  large  business 
deals,  and  American  subsidiary  coins  down  to  the  copper  cent  pass  current  every- 
where side  by  side  with  the  Panamanian  coins.  The  National  Assembly  of 
1913  authorized  the  establishment  of  a  national  bank,  with  power  to  issue  paper 
money,  but  constitutional  objection  has  been  made  to  the  plan. 

PUBLIC    IMPROVEMENTS 

Early  in  1904,  the  sum  of  $1,625,000  was  set  aside  for  public  improve- 
ments, and  since  that  time  several   millions  more  have  been  spent.     When 

[  271  ] 


Some  of  the  streets  in  Colon  have  queer 
names.  This  is  a  scene  in  Bottle  Alley,  one 
of  the  principal  business  thoroughfares. 


One  of  the  newer  type  of  concrete  buildings. 
This  structure  is  the  property  of  the  Panama 
Railroad,  which  owns  most  of  the  land  in 
Colon. 


Front  Street,  Colon,  as  it  appears  to-day.  Before  the  Americans  started  work  on  the  Canal,  many 
of  the  streets  were  in  an  unsightly  and  consequently  unhealthy  condition.  In  the  past  few  years 
a  large  amount  of  street  improvements  have  been  made  and  much  land  has  been  filled  in  and 
reclaimed  east  of  the  city.     All  of  the  streets,  both  residential  and  business,  are  now  macadamized. 

I  272  ] 


CTTLB  TvAN-D  .  DIVIDED  -^^THe:  WOEUkD,  TTKITED 

Panama  became  a  republic  there  was  not  a  road  in  the  country  that  could  be 
dignified  by  that  name.  Subsequently,  a  number  of  roads  and  bridges  were 
built,  connecting  the  principal  towns  in  western  Panama,  but  the  work,  in 
many  cases,  was  let  to  irresponsible  contractors,  and  proved  defective.  It  is 
officially  admitted  that  the  main  trouble  has  been  the  failure  to  adopt  a  definite 
plan.  This  mistake  has  been  corrected,  and  works  of  a  public  nature  are  now 
carried  out  along  uniform  lines.  The  largest  wagon  bridge  in  the  republic  is 
that  over  the  Santa  Maria  River  on  the  border  of  Code  and  Los  Santos  prov- 
inces. It  was  built  in  1907,  under  the  supervision  of  Mr.  J.  G.  Holcombe, 
at  that  time  chief  engineer  of  the  republic,  but  who  was  formerly  in  charge  of  all 
municipal  engineering  of  the  Canal  Commission.  Since  1904,  municipal 
buildings,  including  schoolhouses,  have  been  erected  in  all  of  the  important 


A  busy  scene  at  the  playa,  or  market  beach,  Panama  City,  where  small  coasting  vessels 
laden  with  vegetables  and  fruit  unload  their  cargoes. 

towns.  In  Panama,  a  national  palace  and  theatre  was  completed  in  1908  at  a 
cost  of  about  $1,000,000;  a  city  hall  was  erected  in  1910;  a  national  institute 
for  boys,  covering  half  an  acre,  was  finished  in  1911  at  a  cost  of  about  $800,000; 
a  spacious  city  market  is  now  under  construction,  and  plans  have  been  prepared 
for  an  abattoir  and  cold  storage  plant  to  cost  $100,000.  In  Colon,  a  govern- 
ment building  was  erected  in  1906. 

Development  of  the  country  has  been  greatly  handicapped  by  the  lack  of 
suitable  transportation  facilities  from  the  interior  districts  to  the  ports.  Produce 
is  brought  to  the  ports  by  pack-pony,  or  by  two-wheeled  ox  carts,  over  roads 
which,  in  the  rainy  season,  oftentimes  become  impassable.  It  is  then  shipped 
to  market  by  steamer  or  sailing  vessel.  On  the  Pacific  coast,  the  National 
Navigation  Company  operates  steamers  west  as  far  as  Pedregal,  the  port  of 
Chiriqui  province,  touching  at  all  intermediate  ports,  and  on  the  east  to  San 

[  273  ] 


OX  TEAM 


Ancient  methods  of  agriculture  are  still  in  vogue,  such  as  planting  corn  by  punching  holes  in 
the  ground  with  a  sharp  pointed  stick,  although  a  few  farmers  have  made  homes  and  laid  out 
plantations  in  the  interior  provinces  and  the  methods  of  farming  are  being  gradually  improved. 
Produce  is  brought  to  market  by  a  pack-pony  or  by  two-wheeled  ox  carts  over  roads,  which,  in 
the  rainy  season,  often  become  impassable. 


[  274  ] 


cy-HE,  TvAN-D  .  DIVIDED GTft&  WO^BJIJNJTED 


Miguel  Bay.  The  Panama  Steamship 
Company  competes  in  this  trade  be- 
tween Panama  and  Chiriqui,  as  do 
hundreds  of  small  sailing  vessels.  On 
the  Atlantic  coast  the  traffic  has  to  de- 
pend entirely  on  sailing  vessels  and 
launches. 

There  is  less  than  100  miles  of  rail- 
road in  the  country,  and  is  confined  to 
the  Panama  railroad  main  line,  and  its 
branches,  and  to  a  line  about  40  miles 
in  length  operated  by  the  United  Fruit 
Company  in  connection  with  its  banana 
plantations  in  the  province  of  Bocas 
del  Toro.  In  1910,  at  the  request  of  the 
Panama  Government,  a  survey  was 
made  by  the  Panama  Railroad  Com- 
pany, for  a  line  from  Panama  to  David 
in  Chiriqui  province,  a  distance  of 
about  274  miles.     Several  attempts  to 

enact  railroad  legislation  in  the  National  Assembly,  in  order  to  proceed 
with  the  construction  of  this  line,  failed;  it  passed  the  Assembly  at  one 
time,  but  was  vetoed  by  a  former  president  on  constitutional  grounds. 
The  present  administration  has  abandoned  this  project,  and  is  making  a 
study   of  a   series   of   short   electric   roads,   with   a   view   of    connecting    up 


Greetings  from  Panama 


Celebration  of  the  opening  of  the  Panama  tramways.     Picture  taken  at  the  company's  car  barn. 

[  275  ] 


CTHE,  Tv\N-D    DIVIDED CTHJ£  WORbD,  JTNITED 

the  principal  ports  on  the  Pacific  coast,  west  of  Panama,  with  the  interior 
districts,  using  the  abundant  waterpower  for  operating  them.  A  number 
of  other  railroad  schemes  have  been  launched  during  the  past  few  years,  notably, 
one  in  the  Darien  by  a  German  syndicate,  and  another  in  Colon  province, 
having  its  port  terminus  at  the  mouth  of  the  Chagres  River;  the  former  project 
was  abandoned,  and  the  latter  has  been  held  up  by  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment.    The    Panamanian    telegraph    system    is    government-owned.     A   line 


A  corner  on  Central  Avenue,  Panama,  showing  a  car  of  the  tramway  service. 


extends  from  Panama  to  David,   with   branch   lines  ramifying  through  the 
provinces. 

FREE    PUBLIC    SCHOOL    SYSTEM 

The  national  constitution  established  a  free  public  school  system,  some- 
thing unique  in  Latin-America,  and  the  government  has  pursued  the  policy  of 
always  providing  liberally  for  the  cause  of  education.  Attendance  at  the  public 
schools  is  compulsory,  and  absence  without  permission  is  punishable  by  small 
fines.  Separate  graded  schools  for  each  sex  are  maintained.  The  curriculum 
embraces  studies  that  will  prepare  the  pupil  for  the  local  normal  schools,  and 
the  institute.  It  includes  drawing,  and  in  the  case  of  the  girls,  instruction  in 
needlework.  Lessons  in  English  are  given  in  all  the  city  schools,  and  some 
of  the  country  schools,  twice  a  week.  The  government  also  maintains  a  manual 
training  school  for  boys,  and  a  natural  conservatory  of  music  to  which  children 
of  poor  families  are  given  free  instruction,  and  where  boys  are  trained  to  qualify 
for  employment  in  the  national  band.  There  are  a  number  of  private  colleges 
for  both  sexes  in  the  republic;  the  colleges  for  boys  are  generally  conducted  by 
the  Christian  Brothers.  The  institute  is  open  to  Panamanian  boys  free  of 
charge,  but  only  two  in  a  family  are  entitled  to  be  admitted  at  the  same  time  on 
this  basis.     The  director  is  an  American,  but  the  talent  of  various  countries  is 

[  276  j 


-ililllliJSraft! 


I  !!  I  I  H  n 


LA 


■'■  ■  ifflU 

'iininTI 


-. 


m 


NATIONA 

■j 


>' 


INSTITUTE  .   PANAMA. 


The  splendid  public  buildings,  worthy  of  any  towns  of  their  size,  which  have  been  erected  in 
Panama  City  and  Colon,  are  real  monuments  to  Panamanian  progress.  The  Panama  government 
provides  liberally  for  the  education  of  its  youth.  The  National  Institute,  Panama  City,  cost  about 
$700,000  and  has  class  room  for  1,000  boys.  Colon  also  has  a  school  building  for  boys  of  much 
the  same  architectural  type  as  the  one  shown  in  the  picture  for  girls. 

[  277  ] 


fcAJSD    piVIDED CTTKB  WORkD>  TTKITED 

drawn  on  freely  in  the  selection  of  the  remainder  of  the  faculty.  The  scholars 
are  classed  as  internos,  those  who  board  and  room  at  the  school,  and  externos, 
those  who  live  at  home.  Every  pupil  who  lives  at  the  school  must  be  provided 
prior  to  admittance  with  clothes  and  bed  linen  to  the  value  of  $100. 

On  May  1,  1913,  the  number  of  public  schools  in  each  province,  number 
of  teachers  employed,  and  scholars  enrolled,  were,  as  follows: 


No.  of  Schools 

Mixed 

and 
Alter- 
nates* 

No.  of  Teachers 

No. 
Pupils  en- 
rolled 

No._ 

Receiving 

Instruc- 

P1U)\ IM  E 

Boys 

Girls 

Male 

Female 

tion, 

one-half 

day 

Bocas  del  Xoro 

2 
11 
10 
22 
20 
29 
13 

3 

9 

12 

22 

20 

30 

8 

9 
35 
12 
44 
42 
11 
12 

5 

18 
22 
36 
12 
76 
20 

12 
53 
45 
76 
34 
174 
25 

291 
2,352 
2,224 
4,111 
2,942 
6,407 
1,214 

217 

Code    

1,682 

Colon   

1,358 

Chiriqui 

2,307 

Los  Santos 

2,016 

Panama 

5,177 

Veraguas 

861 

Totals 

107 

104 

165 

189 

419 

19,541 

13,618 

*  Mixed  schools  are  those  where  pupils  of  both  sexes  attend  classes  at  the  same  time.  Alternate  schools  are 
those  where  the  boys  attend  school  in  the  morning,  and  girls  in  the  afternoon,  vice  versa. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  there  is  a  normal  institute  for  girls,  with  161  pupils, 
and  19  professors;  national  conservatory  of  music  and  declamation,  with  176 
pupils  and  eight  professors;  school  of  arts  and  sciences  with  136  scholars  and 
nine  professors,  and  the  National  Institute  for  boys  with  157  pupils,  and  26 
professors,  all  located  in  Panama  City.  Since  May  1,  several  other  primary 
schools  have  been  opened,  and  one  professional  school  for  girls.     The  national 


Masonic  Temple,  Port  Limon. 

[  278  1 


Views  of  a  Sugar  Cane  Plantation,  located  about  seven  miles  east  of  Colon.  The  raising  of 
sugar  cane  is  destined  to  become  one  of  the  future  permanent  sources  of  wealth  of  the  country. 
The  Isthmian  cane  contains  a  high  per  cent  of  saccharine  and  grows  readily. 


279 


cthe:  T)AN-P_.  divided  — ^thb  wor^d>  ttnjted 

conservatory  of  music  and  declamation  is  one  of  the  best  of  its  kind,  and  many 
American  children  receive  musical  instruction  there.  Its  head  is  Prof.  Narciso 
Garay. 

PANAMA    RICHLY    ENDOWED    BY    NATURE 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  Panama  has  been  wonderfully  favored  in  the 
extent  and  variety  of  its  natural  resources,  the  value  of  its  imports  greatly 
exceed  the  value  of  its  exports.  The  people  of  interior  Panama  are  in  the  main 
agriculturists  only  so  far  as  to  supply  their  own  simple  wants.  They  lack 
initiative  and  ambition,  looking  only  to  the  present,  with  no  great  desire  to 
acquire  wealth  from  cultivation  of  the  soil.  Hence,  the  future  of  Isthmian 
agriculture  must  depend  upon  immigrants,  men  of  a  hardier  mold,  and  ex- 
perienced in  tilling  the  field. 

The  Canal  Commission  ran  up  against  this  condition  in  1904  and  1905. 
It  was  perfectly  willing  to  buy  produce  in  the  local  market,  but  the  moment  it 
attempted  to  do  so,  prices  advanced  to  a  prohibitive  point.  This  brought  the 
commissary  question  into  prominence.  In  1904,  but  one  commissary  was  in 
operation,  that  at  Cristobal.  The  merchants  of  Panama  protested  against  the 
establishment  of  government  commissaries  on  a  large  scale,  and  appealed  to 
Washington.  In  1905,  Hon.  Charles  E.  Magoon,  then  governor  of  the  Canal 
Zone,  was  directed  to  propose  to  the  committee  of  merchants  having  the  matter 
in  charge,  that  if  a  company  was  formed  among  them  to  establish  commissaries 
at  points  along  the  Canal,  where  indicated,  and  if  this  company  would  agree  to 
sell  goods  at  a  reasonable  price,  the  Canal  Commission  would  desist  from  their 
plan.     After  a  week  of  deliberation,  the  chairman  of  the  committee  announced 


Central  Market,  Panama  City,  where  the  larger  number  of  Panamanian  housewives 

do  their  marketing. 

[  280  ] 


The  Mango  is  the  most  common  of  the  fruit  bearing  trees  in  Panama.  Gourds,  from  the  gourd 
or  calabash  trees,  are  much  used  for  household  utensils.  An  excellent  grade  of  coffee  is  grown  on 
the  uplands.  Tamarinds  are  a  small  pod-shaped  fruit  with  an  acid  flavor,  having  medicinal  proper- 
ties. Cocoanut  plants  take  root  and  sprout  on  the  surface  of  sandy  soil,  and  the  growing  of 
cocoanuts  is  becoming  a  profitable  industry. 


281   J 


CmB   TvANP  ,  DIVIDED —cpnE:  VJOTggB,  TINJTED 

at  a  public  meeting  that  it  was  too  big  an  undertaking  for  the  merchants  to 
entertain.  Thus  Panama  lost  one  of  its  greatest  opportunities,  and  as  a  result 
of  this  shortsightedness  the  commissaries  have  been  a  thorn  in  the  flesh  of  the 
local  commercial  body  ever  since. 

Until  immigration  is  intelligently  fostered  by  the  Panama  Government 
there  can  be  no  great  development  of  the  country's  vast  resources.     Some 


Street  venders  are  numerous  and  display  their  wares  in  the  manner  shown  in  the  picture. 

attempts  at  settlement  and  colonization  have  been  made  on  the  part  of  foreign- 
ers, and  most  have  failed,  partly  on  account  of  obstacles  set  up  by  the  govern- 
ment itself,  such  as  inability  to  procure  clear  titles,  and  partly  on  account  of 
ignorance  of  local  conditions.  The  present  administration  has  taken  steps  to 
remedy  the  situation  by  reforming  the  land  laws.  The  public  land  of  Panama 
consists  of  what  are  known  as  "Tierras  baldias,"  or  unappropriated  or  wild 
lands,  and  "Indultadas,"  which  were  acquired  by  the  early  settlers  under  grants 
from  the  Spanish  crown  as  commons.  A  general  land  survey,  and  the  prepara- 
tion of  maps  and  plats  of  all  government  lands,  has  been  ordered,  under  which 
all  rights  acquired  by  persons  under  former  laws  will  be  respected,  while  present 
occupants  of  government  land,  who  have  put  up  improvements,  may  acquire 
title  upon  the  payment  of  50  cents  a  hectare  (about  %\  acres).  Sales  of  public 
land,  not  exceeding  1,000  hectares  to  any  one  person,  may  be  made  at  a  price  of 
not  less  than  $1.50,  nor  more  than  $6  per  hectare.  If  the  purchaser  of  a  1,000- 
hectare  tract  places  same  under  full  cultivation  he  may  acquire  another  tract 
of  equal  size  under  similar  conditions.  Not  more  than  10  hectares  of  public 
land  may  be  homesteaded  by  either  foreigner  or  native  born. 

Agriculturally  speaking,  the  surface  of  the  republic  has  not  yet  been  scratch- 
ed.    There  are  probably  75,000  head  of  cattle  in  Chiriqui,  but  the  extensive 

[  282  ] 


Panamanian  fire  brigade.  Both  Panama  and  Colon  in  times  past  have  been  visited  by  terrible 
conflagrations,  and  up  to  a  few  years  ago  were  compelled  to  fight  fires  with  antiquated  equipment. 
J.  G.  Duque  is  the  good  angel  of  the  Panama  department,  and  for  years  paid  for  its  upkeep  out  of 
his  personal  funds. 


Automobile  fire  engine  of  the  Panamanian  fire  department  at  Colon.     The  city  of  Panama 
is  also  provided  with  one  of  these  modern  machines. 

[  283  1 


qniE  Tv\N-P  .  DIVIDED  — Cf-RB  WOBJJJ^TJKITED 


llanos  of  that  province,  and  in  Yeraguas,  are  capable  of  supporting  ten  times 
that  many.  Cattle  on  the  hoof  in  Chiriqui  bring  about  $35  a  head.  There  is 
an  abundance  of  feed,  and  the  chief  enemy  of  the  animals  is  the  tick,  which, 
under  scientific  handling,  has  been  brought  under  control.  It  is  estimated 
that  over  8, 000, 000  acres  in  the  republic  are  covered  by  virgin  forests,  containing 
valuable  hardwoods,  such  as  mahogany,  cocobolo,  guayacum  (lignum  vitae), 
roble,  dyewoods,  and  other  varieties. 

Traces  of  gold  are  found  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  A  few  quartz 
mines  have  been  worked,  but  on  account  of  the  low  grade  ore  they  have  not 
proved  profitable.     Manganese  mines  were  formerly  worked  on  the  Atlantic 


s^t»T\.--ifcw^S8iiiSHll1''^Vr2BfHB 

^^^f^^Ail/^ff^iiiifLj^S^ 

f    JzS&       ffiS^M 

.7Mmy^^^^m^ 

■ ' Jw/uKgf9HT*f!!ff¥jfijj9£'fV 

-   ,  "t* **: 

iKffi'/^^^ 

Hi , 

/ 

■M^*%r     '\j 

pte 

vaR*"   It  1 

^KnMi&kkSfl  ''      tACdkjtf   ^~J^B        '   +JGL  ^M 

.  ■ 

35»—      *^**^^.                                         B 

!a*«3*'"*ttt.            ^^^B^l 

The  Espiritu  Santo  or  Holy  Ghost  Orchid, 
one  of  the  most  prized  members  of  the 
Isthmanian  orchid  family.  The  petals  of  the 
flowers  enclose  a  faithful  reproduction  of 
doves,  even  to  the  eyes  and  bill. 


Row  of  young  Royal  palms,  Slifer  Park, 
Colon.  These  'were  shoots  less  than  a  foot 
high  in  1909,  when  transplanted  from  the 
Botanical  Gardens  at  Kingston,  Jamaica. 


coast,  near  Nombre  de  Dios.  Indications  of  oil  have  been  discovered  in  Chiri- 
qui and  Los  Santos  provinces.  No  coal  deposits  of  value  have  yet  been  found. 
A  lignitic  formation  was  encountered  in  the  excavation  of  the  Canal. 

Both  the  flora  and  the  fauna  cover  a  wide  range,  and  remain  to  be  made 
the  subject  of  expert  study.  The  orchid  thrives,  and  there  are  hundreds  of 
varieties,  the  Espiritu  Santo,  the  Semana  Santa,  and  La  Doncella  de  la  Noche 
being  the  most  prized.  Among  wild  animals  are  the  jaguar,  wild  cat,  puma, 
deer,  armadillo,  anteater,  tapir,  raccoon,  sajino,  a  species  of  wild  boar,  rabbit, 
squirrel,  monkey,  marmoset,  and  sloth.  Alligators  are  plentiful  in  the  tidal 
rivers,  and  the  snake  family  is  represented  from  the  boa  constrictor  to  the  spite- 

[  284  ] 


^1 

■b     ^H 

*&  t      Y'l       hi 

y*'-      jg» 

■f 

1 

An  iguana,  or  huge  lizard.  Its  flesh,  as  well 
as  its  eggs,  are  highly  prized  as  articles  of  diet 
by  the  natives  of  Panama. 


Among  the  wild  animals  on  the  Isthmus, 
none  are  more  unprepossessing  than  the  sloth, 
shown  in  the  picture.  They  are  harmless  and 
stick  close  to  the  trees. 


Two  products  of  the  Isthmus.  The  picture  above  shows  "Buster"  Brown  seated  on  a  15  ft. 
8  in.  alligator,  which  was  shot  three  miles  from  Porto  Bello,  in  August,  1909.  The  rivers  of 
Panama  are  the  habitat  of  thousands  of  alligators.  The  Bayano  river  is  especially  adapted  to  their 
haunts,  and  parties  of  Canal  employes  often  make  trips  up  this  river  and  enjoy  the  sport  of 
hunting  them. 


285 


Tv\ND    DIVIDED CTHE:  WORLjD,  TTKITED 


A  bread  seller. 


ful  coral.  Bird  life  is  particularly 
varied,  the  best  known  species  being 
the  parrot  family,  including  the  par- 
roquet.  The  game  birds  consist  of 
quail,  currasows,  wild  ducks,  pigeons, 
doves,  guans,  (a  kind  of  wild  turkey) 
and  various  migratory  shore  birds. 
The  quetzal  bird  is  found  in  Chiriqui 
province.  In  the  Canal  Zone  upward 
of  800  species  of  birds  have  been  noted, 
300  of  which  have  been  classified. 
Among  them  are  more  than  150  kinds 
of  humming  birds,  including  a  new 
species  which  have  been  given  the 
name  of  Goethalae,  in  honor  of  Colonel 
Goethals.  The  Isthmus  is  a  veritable 
paradise  for  the  sportsman.  The  kill- 
ing of  birds  in  the  Canal  Zone  is  re- 
stricted.  Deer,  formerly  common  in 
the  Zone,  have  been  largely  hunted 
off,  but  are  plentiful  a  short  distance  away  from  the  Canal. 

The  largest  single  item  of  export  from  the  Isthmus  is  bananas,  the  annual 
shipments  of  the  United  Fruit  Company  from  its  plantations  in  Bocas  del 
Toro  province  alone  amounting  to  upward  of  6,000,000  bunches.  It  is  the 
second  largest  banana  producing  district  in  the  world,  and  is  continually  being 
extended.  Bananas  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  republic,  and,  with  the  above 
exception,  no  pains  are  taken  to  cultivate  them.  The  Chagres  River  valley  is 
quite  a  producer,  and  furnishes  the  Canal  Commission  hotels  and  messes.  The 
Frijoles  banana  is  especially  noted  for  its  fine  flavor.  There  are  several  varieties 
of  bananas,  most  of  them  unknown  to  the  outsider  as  they  are  not  shipped. 
One  is  the  manzana,  so  named,  because  of  a  similarity  in  flavor  to  the  apple,  and 
the  higo,  so-called,  because  it  approxi- 
mates a  fig  in  flavor.  This  last  seldom 
grows  larger  than  a  man's  middle 
finger.  Other  fruits  are  the  pine- 
apple, which  grow  to  prodigious  size  on 
Taboga  Island,  the  pineapple  para- 
dise; mangoes  of  varying  size  and 
quality,  including  a  toothsome  fruit 
known  as  the  mango  de  calidad;  nis- 
pero,  a  small,  sweetish  fruit;  oranges, 
limes  and  lemons,  guavas,  maranon, 
a  fruit  that  will  pucker  like  a  choke- 
cherry,  having  its  seed  at  one  end; 
grapefruit,  papayas,  breadfruit,  ma- 
meys  of  several  kinds,  custard  apples, 
cirijuelas,  a  native  cherry,  etc.  Cocoa- 
nuts  grow  everywhere,  but  attain  their 
greatest  production  on  the  San  Bias 
coast.     There   are   many  varieties  of  Making  cocoanut  oil. 

[  286  ] 


The  largest  single  item  of  export  from  the  Isthmus  is  bananas.  The  annual  shipment  of  the 
United  Fruit  Company  from  its  plantation  in  Bocas  del  Toro  Province  alone  amounting  to  up- 
wards of  6,000,000  bunches.     It  is  the  second  largest  banana  producing  district  in  the  world. 


[  2S7  1 


h££^LvI)IVIPEP  ~^<?ri\&  ^WO^kD)_TIKITgg 


the  palm  tree,  including  the  royal  palm  (transplanted),  wine  palm,  ivory  nut 
palm,  and  fan  palm. 

Pearl  fishing  has  been  carried  on  for  years  in  the  Pearl  Island  archipelago, 
situated  in  Panama  Bay,  about  45  miles  from  Panama  City.  It  is  conducted 
under  concession  from  the  Panama  Government.  Balboa  makes  mention  of 
finding  many  pearls  of  size  there,  and  some  have  been  disclosed  in  recent  times 
to  the  value  of  $1,200.  Native  divers  are  usually  employed,  although  the  diving 
bell  has  been  used.     Most  of  the  fishing  is  carried  on  in  the  rainy  season,  as  the 


Outer  view  of  one  of  the  old  forts  at  Porto 
Bello.  It  is  so  grown  over  with  vegetation 
that  the  walls  are  hardly  visible.  The  turret 
marks  one  of  the  corners. 


A  tropical  tramp.  A  local  character  known 
as  "Old  Aspinwall"  who  lived  in  Colon  for 
many  years. 


divers  do  not  like  to  descend  in  the  dry  season,  when  an  ocean  current  cools 
the  temperature  of  the  water.  Some  pearls  are  also  found  along  the  coast  of 
Los  Santos  province. 

Other  native  products  are  rubber,  cocoa,  plantains,  corn,  indigo,  sarsapa- 
rilla,  ipecac,  sugar  cane,  and  tobacco.  The  raising  of  sugar  cane  is  destined 
to  become  one  of  the  future  permanent  sources  of  wealth  of  the  country.  The 
Isthmian  cane  contains  a  high  percentage  of  saccharine  and  grows  readily.  At 
the  present  time  only  one  refinery  is  in  operation,  the  sap  being  mainly  used  in 
the  production  of  molasses  and  native  rum. 

It  is  to  be  feared  that  Nature  has  been  too  lavish  to  the  simple  husbandman 
of  the  Isthmus.  It  furnishes  the  cane  to  build  the  walls  of  his  little  hut;  the 
palm  leaves  are  easily  gathered  to  thatch  it;  the  neighboring  trees  supply  the 
material  out  of  which  he  fashions  his  mortar  and  pestle  for  pulverizing  his  corn 
or  hulling  his  rice;  the  calabash  tree  found  growing  in  every  yard  furnishes  the 

[  288  ] 


A 


Primitive  methods  are  still  used  in  making  molasses  in  the  interior  of  Panama  and  the  produce 
is  principally  used  in  the  manufacture  of  native  rum.  Pineapple  growing  is  quite  an  industry  and 
some  of  the  most  luscious  pineapples  in  the  world  are  grown  on  Taboga  Island.  A  sample  of  the 
straw  used  in  the  manufacture  of  Panama  hats  is  shown  in  one  of  the  above  pictures.  A  family 
group  is  also  shown  preparing  the  evening  meal  by  hulling  rice  with  mortar  and  pestle,  after  the 
native  method.     The  household  utensils  of  the  people  of  the  interior  of  Panama  are  crude  affairs. 


[  289  ] 


CTHB  TvANP    DIVIDED- CTHB  WPgJ^D,  TJNJTED 

minor  household  utensils;  his  orange  and  papaya  trees  and  banana  stalks  gives 
him  all  the  fruit  he  wants;  he  goes  a  short  distance  away  and  collects  the  wild 
plantain,  which  makes  an  excellent  substitute  for  potatoes;  he  pokes  a  stick  in 
the  ground  near  the  house  and  inserts  the  seed  of  a  yucca  or  yam,  giving  it  no 


The  usual  type  of  house  of  the  average  interior  Panamanian.    They  are  constructed  of 
bamboo,  tied  by  means  of  withes  and  have  a  thatch  roof. 


further  attention ;  his  wife  collects  the  firewood  that  the  wind  has  shook  from  the 
trees,  and  he  lacks  what  ?      Nothing,  but  a  little  coffee,  sugar,  salt,  and  candles. 

THE    PEOPLE 

The  native  population  of  the  Isthmus  is  composed  of  descendants  of  the 
early  Spanish  conquistador es,  and  of  various  later  mixtures.  Prior  to  the  intro- 
duction of  the  negro  slaves,  the  people  could  be  divided  into  three  general  classes, 
the  pure-blooded  Spaniards,  the  native  Indians,  and  the  mestizos,  a  cross  be- 
tween the  Spaniard  and  the  Indian.  With  the  advent  of  the  negroes,  mulattos 
became  numerous,  and  these  mixing  with  the  Indian  produced  another  type 
called  zambos.  During  the  French  canal  days,  many  of  the  French  employes 
intermarried  with  the  Panamenas,  resulting  in  a  Creole  type.  Since  then,  other 
mixtures  have  come  into  existence,  such  as  the  Chinese  with  the  negro,  and  the 
Chinese  with  native  women  of  the  lower  class.  Thus  may  be  seen  many 
children,  moreno,  or  brown  in  color,  with  Mongolian  features. 

The  mestizo,  according  to  the  national  census  of  1911,  is  largely  in  the 
majority,  outnumbering  the  whites  three  to  one,  and  the  negroes  two  to  one. 
Comparatively  few  negroes  are  seen  in  the  back  country;  they  generally  live 
near  the  coast,  or  in  the  cities  of  Panama,  Colon,  and  Bocas  del  Toro.  The 
Canal  work  has  been  responsible  for  the  introduction  of  the  greaterpart  of  the 
present  day  negroes,  with  the  exception  of  the  province  of  Bocas  del  Toro,  where 

[  290  ] 


The  children  of  the  tropical  zone  love  to  play  as  ardently  as  do  those  in  the  cooler  climes; 
they  have  the  same  childish  joys  and  sorrows  and  look  forward  with  some  desire  to  the  time 
when  they  are  "Grown  Up."  One  of  their  games  peculiar  to  the  Isthmus  resembles  "shooting 
craps,"  and  is  played  with  the  seeds  of  the  maranon,  a  native  fruit. 


[  291  ] 


A  wash  day  scene.  Wash-boards  are  not  in 
favor  with  the  native  laundry  women.  A  flat 
stone  and  a  wooden  beater  are  effective  in 
removing  the  dirt,  but  as  a  "button  buster" 
they  are  hard  to  beat. 


Laundry  is  delivered  and  produce  carried 
to  market  on  the  heads  of  the  natives.  A 
farmer  living  near  Panama  City  makes  a  busi- 
ness of  renting  space  to  the  washerwomen,  on 
which  to  erect  lines  for  drying  their  clothes. 


the  United  Fruit  Company  has  imported  them  in  large  numbers  to  work  its 
banana  plantations.  Practically  all  of  the  negroes  came  from  the  islands  of  the 
Antilles;  many  of  them  become  naturalized,  acquire  property,  and,  in  time, 
adopt  the  language  and  customs  of  the  country  and  intermix  with  the  native 
inhabitants. 

The  full-blooded  negro  immigrant  has  no  social  standing  whatever  with 
the  Panamanians  as  long  as  he  remains  a  West  Indian  in  character  and  associa- 
tions. He  is  termed  a  "chumbo"  by  them,  equivalent  of  the  shortening  of  the 
word  "negro"  as  practiced  in  the  United  States.     The  color  line,  however,  is 


Street  scene  in  the  village  of  Arraijan. 

[  292  ] 


Rosario  de  la  Rosa  in  her  native  holiday 
costume. 


One  of  the  belles  of  Panama,  or  a  Panamanian 
"Queen  of  Hearts." 


The     Martiniquan    women      are  the     most  a  Panamanian  family.     Girls  of  the  higher 

picturesque    of    the    varied   types  attracted  to  ciass  Panamanian  families  are  not  allowed  on 

Panama  by  the  Canal  work.    Their  dress  tends  the  street  after  nightfall,  without  being  accom- 

wholly  to  gay  colors.  panied  by  some  member  of  their  family. 

[  293  ] 


CTHB  IiAN-P  .  DIVIDED  —Gm&  WOELLjD,  ITMITED 

not  drawn  so  strictly  as  it  is  in  the  South,  nor  with  the  laxity  of  the  North. 
He  is  not  admitted  to  the  best  hotels,  cafes,  or  barber  shops,  but  he  is  permitted 
to  mingle  freely  in  places  of  public  amusement.  He  can  sit  in  the  first-class 
coaches  of  a  Panama  railroad  passenger  train,  provided  he  pays  first-class  fare 
for  the  privilege,  which  only  a  few  avail  themselves  of,  and  there  are  no  "Jim 
Crow"  street  cars.  He  is  not,  however,  admitted  to  the  homes  of  the  better 
class  of  Panamanians,  except  in  the  capacity  of  menials.  On  the  other  hand  if 
a  person  is  of  mixed  Panamanian  and  negro  stock,  was  born  in  the  country, 
and  is  a  citizen,  the  bars  are  lowered,  and  there  are  many  of  this  type  who  have 
risen  to  public  eminence  through  superior  intelligence. 

The  Panamanian  is  either  fairly  well-to-do  or  very  poor.     The  middle  class 
seen  in  Mexico,  and  some  other  Latin-American  countries,  is  a  negligible  factor 


Church  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  at  Colon,  (Roman  Catholic).  The  building  to  the  right 
is  the  schoolhouse  and  hall,  erected  by  the  parish  priest,  Father  Volk,  after  years  of  labor,  with 
his  own  hands  and  with  his  own  money. 


in  Panama.  In  the  provinces,  outside  of  the  towns,  the  poorer  class  pre- 
dominates. The  people  are  either  squatters  settling  on  a  piece  of  government 
land,  or  are  employes  of  some  landed  proprietor,  or  cattle  owner.  The  mestizo 
makes  an  excellent  vaquero  and  cowboy,  because  of  his  liking  for  the  work. 
The  average  interior  farmhand,  however,  is  utterly  undependable  as  a  laborer, 
and,  as  a  rule,  can  be  counted  on  to  work  only  when  he  must  have  money.  He 
has  an  almost  total  lack  of  ambition,  and,  therefore,  is  measurably  free  from 
worry.  So  long  as  he  has  a  roof  over  his  head,  even  if  only  of  thatch,  a  ham- 
mock to  sleep  in,  and  an  amount  of  rice,  meat,  and  rum  sufficient  to  stay  the 
immediate  cravings  of  his  appetite,  he  cares  not  a  jot  for  the  morrow.  He 
revels  in  fiestas  or  religious  holidays,  and  it  is  then  that  the  interior  native  is 
seen  at  his  best.  The  head  of  the  family  will  don  a  boiled  shirt  and  black 
trousers;  some  times  he  will  put  on  a  pair  of  alpargatas,  or  rope-soled  slippers, 
but  generally  he  will  go  barefoot.      The  wife  and  daughter  will  assume  all  the 

[  294  ] 


CTHE,  Tv\NP  .  DIVIDED  — q^B  WORL^D,  TTNJTED 


Interior  of  the  church  at  Arraijan.  The 
parishioners  are  poor  as  evidenced  by  the 
crude  attempt  at  adornment. 


The  village  church  at  San  Miguel,  Pearl 
Islands.  These  islands  are  located  in  Panama 
Bay  and  are  noted  for  their  pearl  beds. 


finery  their  simple  abode  possesses.  This,  on  feast  days,  usually  consists  of 
the  pollcra,  popularly  called  the  national  costume,  which  is  worn  with  a  grace 
and  freedom  of  movement,  which  no  woman  not  native  born  has  been  able  to 
imitate.  The  hair  is  bedecked  with  varicolored  butterfly  and  flower  ornaments, 
and  native  made  bright  colored  slippers  adorn  the  feet.  No  hose  are  worn.  A 
gold  chain  and  a  filmy  scarf  generally  completes  the  attire.  The  pollcra  is  not 
confined  to  the  poorer  classes,  but  is  much  affected  on  religious  festivals  by  the 
wives  and  daughters  of  the  rich.  The  costume  is  very  carefully  made  frequently 
costing  from  $40  to  $50. 

Panama  is  essentially  a  Catholic  country,  and  while  all  of  its  civilized 
inhabitants  observe  the  forms  of  religion,  there  is  surprisingly  small  interest  in 
church  attendance.     The  rites  of  baptism  and  christening,  however,  are  never 


Methodist  Church  and  College,  built  by  the 
Sea  in  Panama  City.  Both  English  and  Spanish 
are  taught  in  the  college.  The  Sunday  morning 
services  are  conducted  in  English  and  the 
evening  services  in  Spanish. 


Christ  Church,  Colon.  The  oldest  Pro- 
testant church  on  the  Isthmus,  built  in  1865  by 
the  Panama  Railroad.  It  was  consecrated  by 
Bishop  Potter  and  is  now  owned  by  the 
Episcopal  Church. 


[  295  ] 


<TftB  |y\NjP  .  piVIDEP  — —crmE,  WpgJjD,  TTKITgP 

overlooked.  Many  of  the  old  houses  contain  niches  for  the  burning  of  candles, 
a  practice  indulged  in  by  every  good  Catholic  family  on  the  near  approach  of  ill 
fortune  or  sickness.  Wayside  shrines  are  found  along  the  roads  on  which  some 
small  offering  may  be  seen.  On  all  important  religious  anniversaries  and  saint 
days,  processions  are  formed  and  march  through  the  streets.  The  carnival 
or  "Mardi  Gras"  has  come  to  be  the  one  great  event  in  Panama,  and  is  carried 
out  on  a  larger  scale  with  each  succeeding  year.  It  is  preceded  by  the  election 
of  a  king  and  queen,  the  proceeds  from  the  sale  of  votes  being  used  to  defray 
the  expense  of  the  affair.     The  carnival  continues  for  three  or  four  days,  and 


Chorrera  Falls.    One  of  a  number  of  pretty  waterfalls  in  Panama,  20  miles  from  Panama  City. 

during  this  period  the  "lid  is  off."     It  is  estimated  that  in  the  1913  celebration 
about  50  tons  of  confetti  were  used. 

The  Panamanian  of  the  better  class  represents  the  material  progress  of  the 
country  along  all  lines.  His  sons  and  daughters  are  educated  abroad,  and  dress 
in  as  correct  style  as  in  New  York  or  Paris.  With  the  broadening  of  ideas,  there 
has  been  an  abandonment  of  some  of  the  ancient  customs  which  have  hemmed 
in  the  life  of  the  boy  and  girl.  It  is  not  as  popular  now  as  it  was  once  for  a 
gallant  to  stand  for  hours  on  the  sidewalk  gazing  steadily  up  at  the  fair  form  of 
his  inamorada,  without  indulging  in  a  word  of  conversation,  but  the  heads  of 
some  families  still  persist  in  inquiring  the  intentions  of  admirers  of  their 
daughters  when  they  call  more  than  once,  and  show  them  the  door  if  the  answer 
is  not  satisfactory.  In  Panama,  these  customs  have  given  way  to  a  large 
extent  the  past  ten  years,  and,  in  time,  will  probably  be  a  thing  of  the  past. 

THE    INDIANS    OF    PANAMA 

Indians,  and  persons  of  Indian  descent,  are  found  in  every  part  of  the 
Isthmus,  but  those  who  have  preserved  their  tribal  state  may  be  grouped  under 

[  296  ] 


Carnival  scenes,  Panama  City.  The  Annual  "Carnival"  or  Mardi  Gras,  is  the  biggest  event  of 
the  year  in  Panama.  The  upper  picture  shows  the  Queen  of  the  Carnival  riding  in  her  royal 
chariot  during  the  height  of  the  festivities.  Tons  of  confetti  are  thrown  and  everybody  takes  a 
week's  holiday. 


[  297 


CTHE  TiANjP    DIVIDED qTIB  WOUL>D>  JIXITED 


the  four  following  classes:  The  Guaymies,  who  dwell  in  the  mountains  of 
Chiriqui  and  Veraguas  provinces;  the  San  Bias,  or  Cuna-Cunas,  who  people 
the  islands  and  some  parts  of  the  mainland  along  the  Caribbean  coast,  east  of 
Colon;  the  Chucunaques,  or  Darien  tribe,  who  live  in  the  mountains  of  eastern 

Panama,  and  the  Cho- 
coes,  who  are  found  in 
the  Sambu  River  valley 
in  southeastern  Darien, 
and  whose  territory  laps 
over  into  Colombia. 
The  national  census  of 
1911  did  not  include  a 
count  of  the  Indians 
living  in  tribal  state,  but 
estimated  their  number 
at  36,178,  since  shown 
to  be  entirely  too  low. 
Seventy  -  five  thousand 
will  approximate  their 
number  more  nearly. 
Mr.  Henry  Pittier,  who  has  given  these  tribes,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Chucunaques,  some  personal  study,  contributed  an  excellent  article  on  the 
Indians  of  Panama  in  the  July,  1912,  number  of  the  National  Geographic 
Magazine.  He,  however,  classes  the  Chucunaques  and  the  upper  Bayano 
River  Indians  as  a  part  of  the  Cuna-Cuna  stock,  which  is  open  to  question,  as 
the  two  present  distinct  physical  types.  The  San  Bias  are  semi-dwarfs,  with 
abnormally  developed  heads,  man-size  bodies,  and  puny  legs;  the  most  of  the 
men  are  bow-legged.  Albinos  are  common  among  them.  The  Chucunaque 
Indian  is  of  normal  proportions,  fleet  of  foot,  and  will  compare  to  advantage 
in  some  respects  with  the  North  American  Indian.     The  Cuna-Cuna  is  a  fisher- 


MEMBERS  OF  PRESIDENT  PORRAS'  CABINET. 


DON  ARISTIDES  ARJONA, 
Secretary  of  Finance. 


DON  FRANCISCO  FILOS, 
Secretary  of  Government  and  Justice. 


Vaults  in  the  Cemetery,  Panama  City. 

[  298  ] 


<?THE   Tv\N-D  .  DIVIDED  ~^q~HE:  WOlU>^TJj^ITED 


man;  the  Chucunaque,  a  hunter,  and  between  the  two  there  is  usually  deadly 
enmity.  The  Chucunaques  are  typical  savages,  while  the  San  Bias,  although 
fearful  of  the  coming  of  the  white  man,  does  not  detest  him,  and  has  adopted 
many  of  the  white  man's  comforts. 

The  territories  of  the  Cuna-Cuna  and  the  Chucunaque  have  long  been 
nearly  a  sealed  book  to  the  outsider,  and  until  recently  it  has  been  a  tribal 
law  with  the  San  Bias  that  no  stranger  should  be  permitted  to  remain  after 
nightfall,  due,  it  is  said,  out  of  fear  for  their  women.  The  San  Bias  inhabit  the 
hundreds  of  islands  and  islets  that  fringe  the  Caribbean  coast,  and  subsist  on 
vegetables  and  fish;  fresh  meat  is  rarely  seen  in  their  villages.  Before  Panama 
separated  from  Colombia,  the  San  Bias  were  ruled  by  one  chieftain  named 
Inanaquina.  The  latter  died  of  fever  while  on  a  mission  to  Bogota,  the  capital 
of  Colombia,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Inapaquina.  Owing  to  the 
new  chief's  slowness  in  recognizing  the  change  in  governments,  Panama 
transferred  authority  over  the  San  Bias  to  another  Indian,  whose  English 
name  is  Charley  Robinson.  Some  of  the  San  Bias  refused  to  accept  Robinson, 
and  a  split  followed,  so  today  the  tribe  is  divided.  Robinson,  who  spent  several 
years  in  the  United  States,  is  a  progressive,  while  Inapaquina  has  no  desire  to 
cultivate  the  white  man's  acquaintance.  The  capital  of  the  former  is  at  San 
Jose  de  Xargana,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Diablo,  and  there,  early  in  1913, 
Miss  Annie  Coope,  a  woman  missionary  succeeded  in  establishing  a  mission 
school.  Miss  Coope  made  an  attempt  to  enter  the  country  several  years 
before,  but  at  that  time  was  not  permitted  to  laud.  She  persisted  in  her  efforts, 
and  through  the  influence  of  Chief  Robinson,  she  was  successful;  now  the 
Indians  are  glad  she  came.     Few  of  the  San  Bias  are  able  to  count  above  10, 


Peculiar  rock  formation  seen  at  San  Juan 
on  the  Pequeni  River. 


Scene  on  the  upper  Chagres  River.  The 
river  between  Alhajuela  and  El  Vigia  flows 
between  high  rock  banks. 


[  209  ] 


gTHB  IiAN-P    DIVIDED— q^BE:  WPgJjgUUNjrngD 

and  when  one  of  the  San  Bias  boys  of  Miss  Coope's  school  counted  to  100  he 
was  the  wonder  of  the  village.  It  has  been  the  custom  of  this  division  of  the 
tribe  to  permit  the  boys  to  come  to  Panama  and  Colon,  and  to  even  send  them 
abroad,  to  procure  a  rudimentary  education,  with  the  expectation  that  they 


San  Bias  Indian  Chief. 


San  Bias  Indian  Girls. 


would  return  to  their  homes  later;  some  have  gone  back,  but  most  of  them 
become  enamored  of  the  life  of  the  cities  and  sever  tribal  relations.  The  girls, 
however,  are  rarely  allowed  to  leave  the  Indian  villages. 

With  the  development  of  Panama,  there  has  been  an  increasingly  insistent 
demand  that  the  valuable  territory  occupied  by  the  Indian  tribes  be  opened  for 
settlement.  The  Indians  have  opposed  this,  but  at  the  session  of  the  Panama 
National  Assembly  in  1913,  a  bill  was  passed,  which  permits  peaceful  exploita- 
tion of  the  region,  and  already  a  number  of  trading  companies  have  entered,  or 
are  preparing  to  enter  the  field.  The  San  Bias  coast  yields  some  of  the  finest 
cocoanuts  in  the  world,  and  as  yet  the  production  is  only  in  its  infancy.  Trad- 
ing is  also  done  in  tortoise  shell,  out  of  which  combs  and  other  hair  ornaments 
are  made,  balata,  the  gum  of  the  nispero  tree,  a  kind  of  rubber  that  commands  a 
better  price  than  the  Para  article,  and  ivory  nuts,  from  which  the  vegetable 
ivory  of  commerce  is  produced.  The  mountain  streams  show  evidences  of 
gold,  and  both  the  coast  and  mountain  Indians  are  well  provided  with  gold 
ornaments,  broad  cuffs  for  the  wrists,  worn  by  the  men,  and  earrings  and  nose 
rings  much  affected  by  the  women. 

The  San  Bias  are  not  at  all  warlike,  and  there  are  no  proved  instances  of 
ill-treatment  of  visitors  within  recent  years.  The  stranger  is  politely,  but 
firmly  warned  away,  and  no  one  has  been  rash  enough  to  incur  their  animosity. 

[  300  ] 


cthe,  TyAnd  ,  divided -— erne  wos^Bj ijnjted 

Even  officials  of  the  Canal  Commission  received  a  rebuff  at  their  hands  a  few 
years  ago.  It  was  when  a  hunt  was  being  made  for  a  good  quality  of  sand  to  be 
used  in  the  concrete  for  Gatun  Locks.  A  tug  was  sent  along  the  San  Bias 
coast,  and  when  an  attempt  was  made  to  investigate  the  sand  on  the  shores  of 
Caledonia  Bay,  the  officials  were  requested  to  desist,  which  they  did.  The 
San  Bias  hold  their  mountain  neighbors  in  dread,  because  in  times  past  the 
latter  were  accustomed  to  levy  tribute  on  them,  and  in  case  of  non-payment  to 
make  raids  on  their  villages,  destroying  the  houses  and  carrying  away  property. 
The  mountain  Indians  have  also  occasionally  resorted  to  poisoning  the  streams 
from  which  the  San  Bias  procured  their  drinking  water.     The  author  has  known 


Panamanian  policemen  lined  up  in  front  of  the  National  Palace  in  Panama  City,  to 
form  an  escort  at  the  funeral  of  a  president. 

of  the  exodus  of  a  whole  village  in  anticipation  of  one  of  these  raids.  The 
Panama  Government  has  only  one  post  in  the  San  Bias  country  at  the  present 
time,  that  at  Puerto  Obaldia. 

THE    GUAYMIES 

The  Guaymi  Indians  are  partly  civilized.  The  women  copy  the  simple 
dress  of  the  interior  native  women,  and  the  men  wear  shirts  and  trousers.  They 
are  not  prepossessing,  and  face  painting  is  a  common  practice  among  both  men 
and  women.  Pittier  says:  "The  children,  especially  the  little  girls,  frequently 
have  lovely  faces,  with  a  warm,  brown  velvety  skin,  and  beautiful  eyes.  When 
they  reach  the  age  of  puberty,  their  hair  is  cropped  short,  and  is  not  allowed  to 
grow  again  until  the  first  baby  is  born.  Maidenhood,  however,  is  a  short  stage 
of  life  for  the  Guaymi  women,  who,  not  infrequently  become  mothers  before 

[  301  ] 


CTHJB  TvAN-D  .  DIVIDED q-HR  WORLjB,  TTKITED 

having  reached  their  twelfth  year.  Polygamy  is  practiced,  while  the  other 
Indian  tribes  of  the  Isthmus  are,  for  the  most  part,  monogamists!"  With  the 
Guaymi  wives  are  regarded  as  a  tangible  asset. 

THE    CHOCOES 

Of  the  Chocoes,  Pittier  writes:  "While  the  history  of  the  Cuna-Cunas 
could  be  written,  at  least  for  the  post-Colombian  period,  we  know  almost  noth- 
ing of  the  Chocoes.  They  are  seldom  referred  to  in  the  ancient  records.  Never 
in  our  25  years  of  tropical  experience  have  we  met  with  such  a  sun-loving, 
bright,  and  trusting  people,  living  nearest  to  Nature,  and  ignoring  the  most 
elementary  wiles  of  so-called  civilization.  Physically,  the  Chocoes  are  a  fine 
and  healthy  race.  The  men  have  wiry  limbs  and  faces  that  are  at  once  kind  and 
energetic,  while,  as  a  rule,  the  girls  are  plump,  and  full  of  mischief.  The 
women  preserve  their  good  looks  and  attractiveness  much  longer  than  is  general- 
ly the  case  in  primitive  peoples,  in  which  their  sex  bears  the  heaviest  share  of 
the  day's  work.  Both  males  and  females  have  unusually  fine,  white  teeth, 
which  they  sometimes  dye  black  by  chewing  the  shoots  of  wild  pepper.  The 
skin  is  of  a  rich,  olive-brown  color,  and,  as  usual,  a  little  lighter  in  the  women 
and  children.  Though  all  go  almost  naked,  they  look  fairer  than  the  Cuna- 
Cunas,  and  some  of  the  women  would  compare  advantageously  with  certain 
Mediterranean  types  of  the  white  race."  The  Chocoes  have  an  inordinate 
fondness  for  ornaments  and  body  painting.  On  feast  days,  these  paintings  are 
very  elaborate  and  artistic,  consisting  of  elegantly  drawn  lines  and  patterns — red 


Patio  or  Court  of  the  National  Prison  of  Panama,  commonly  called  Chiriqui  Prison. 
It  is  situated  near  the  sea  wall  in  Panama  City. 

[  302  ] 


CTHE,  TiANP    DIVIDED <?n\E  WQBLDD)  TTXITED 

and  black,  or  simply  black.  The  people  are  cleanly  and  very  industrious. 
During  the  dry  season,  their  life  is  wholly  out-of-doors,  planting  their  crops, 
hunting,  fishing,  and  canoeing.     When  the  heavy  rains  come  they  remain  at 


y  (  *  *  I  i 


**•$*& 


Some  of  the  gold  ornaments  found  in  the  graves  of  an  extinct  race  of  Indians  in  the  Province  of 
Chiriqui.     They  are  made  of  solid  gold  and  each  is  supposed  to  represent  some  animal. 

home  weaving  baskets  of  all  kinds,  a  work  in  which  the  women  are  remarkably 
proficient,  making  rope  and  hammocks,  carving  dishes  out  of  tree  trunks,  etc. 

ANCIENT    CIVILIZATION    OF    CHIRIQUI 

In  ancient  times,  a  powerful  and  aggressive  tribe  sometimes  spoken  of  as 
the  Dorasques,  probably  an  offshoot  of  the  Mayas,  inhabited  the  greater  part 
of  the  province  of  Chiriqui.  As  a  people  they  are  now  totally  extinct,  but  they 
have  left  behind  evidences  of  a  civilization  that  compares  favorably  with  that 
of  the  Aztecs  of  Mexico,  the  Mayas  of  Central  America,  the  Chibchas  of  the 
Colombian  plateau,  and  the  Incas  of  Peru.  In  the  latter  part  of  1858,  natives 
of  Bugaba,  a  small  village  in  Chiriqui  province,  about  15  miles  from  David, 
accidentally  unearthed  a  gold  image.  Further  search  led  to  the  discovery, 
within  an  area  of  12  acres,  of  gold  ornaments  and  curious  pottery  valued  at 
$50,000.  The  place  was  evidently  a  huacal,  or  burial  ground  for  the  ancient 
race.  Since  that  time  other  discoveries  have  been  made,  and  thousands  of 
huacas,  or  graves,  have  been  explored.  In  many,  pottery  only  has  been  found, 
the  gold  ornaments  having  been  placed  solely  in  the  graves  of  some  chieftain, 
or  prominent  man  of  the  tribe.  The  graves  are  invariably  enclosed  in  rough 
stone  slabs,  forming  a  kind  of  a  vault.  Visitors  to  Chiriqui  rarely  return  with- 
out some  of  this  pottery,  which  can  be  obtained  very  cheaply,  or  if  one  cares  to, 

f  303  ] 


•_ 


The  upper  picture  shows  the  Panama  Cathedral,  Panama  City,  begun  in  1673,  and  completed 
in  1760.  A  portion  of  the  Plaza  de  la  Independencia  taken  from  the  roof  of  the  City  Hall  building, 
is  also  shown.  The  small  building  on  the  corner  directly  in  front  of  the  La  Mercedes  Church,  is 
the  chapel.  This  church  is  attended  by  many  of  the  wealthier  Panamanians.  Many  of  the  streets 
are  so  narrow  that  vehicles  can  hardly  pass. 

[  304  ] 


CTHB   TyAN-D    DIVIDED— ^THE:  WQB^g)_TINJTED 

he  can  dig  them  up  himself.  The  gold  ornaments  are  of  splendid  workmanship, 
and  show  that  the  Indians  were  skilled  metal  workers.  They  appear  to  have 
been  cast  in  clay  moulds,  and  the  most  favored  forms  are  the  frog,  tortoise, 
tiger,  armadillo,  dog,  eagle,  and  snake.  The  pottery  is  vari-colored,  either 
plain,  or  glazed,  and  the  decoration  ranges  from  crude  outlines  of  animal  shapes 
to  complex  and  regular  geometrical  designs.  Some  implements  and  household 
utensils  have  also  been  found.  In  1913,  graves  containing  some  of  these  gold 
ornaments  were  reported  to  have  been  found  in  the  province  of  Los  Santos, 
about  150  miles  east  of  the  graves  of  Chiriqui. 


Part  of  the  Sea  Wall,  Panama  City.     The  wall  is  said  to  have  cost  $8,000,000  and  is  the  one  which 
led  King  Philip  to  remark  that  the  work  ought  to  be  visible  from  his  palace  in  Spain. 

Another  ornament  that  comes  from  Chiriqui  province,  and  is  also  quite 
common  in  Costa  Rica,  is  the  cadena  chata,  a  long  gold  chain,  made  of  thin 
plates,  closely  linked  together.  They  are  highly  prized  by  the  Panamenas,  who 
wear  them  on  feast  days,  while  the  Americans  have  sought  them  so  eagerly  that 
they  have  risen  greatly  in  price  and  caused  numerous  imitations.  A  genuine 
cadena  chata,  worth  now  about  $40,  could  have  been  bought  in  1904  for  half 
that  sum. 

The  piedras  pintados  (painted  stones)  found  in  Chiriqui  province  are 
attributed  by  some  to  the  ancient  Indian  inhabitants.  The  largest  specimen  of 
these  stands  upon  an  open  plain  a  few  miles  out  of  David,  and  consists  of  a  huge 
boulder  on  which  a  variety  of  hieroglyphics  have  been  cut  and  painted.  Smaller 
stones  have  been  found  in  the  valley  of  the  Caldera  River.  Mr.  D.  F.  Mac- 
Donald,  an  authority  on  the  geology  of  western  Panama,  says  of  them:     "From 

[  305  ] 


CTFLB   TvAN-P    DIVIDED cm\&  WOI5LkD>  T1KITED 


the  weathering  of  these  piedras  pintadas,  and  from  the  pottery  and  other  objects 
remnants  of  an  ancient  Indian  culture,  it  is  known  that  they  are  at  least  1,000 
years  old,  and  probably  considerably  more." 

SIGHTSEEING 

The  modernizing  of  Panama  has  necessarily  robbed  it  of  some  of  its  historic 
charm,  but  there  still  remain  many  evidences  of  its  earlier  characteristics.  The 
once  fortified  sea  wall  still  stands,  and  the  story  of  its  cost,  said  to  be  $8,000,000, 
an  enormous  sum  in  those  days,  will  bear  repeating.  "A  sovereign  of  Spain  was 
seen  standing  at  a  window  of  his  palace  one  day,  looking  toward  the  west  with 
a  disturbed  expression  on  his  features.  A  courtier  made  bold  to  inquire  what 
he  was  looking  at.      T  am  looking,'  replied  the  King,  his  face  relaxing  into  a 


^L 

^^_      T 

Sg**"52?"C/^^ 

A  part  of  the  Sea  Wall,  Panama  City,  at  low 
tide.  The  Chiriqui  prison  is  located  within 
these  walls.  There  is  a  promenade  on  top  of 
the  wall  which  overlooks  the  Pacific  entrance 
to  the  Canal. 


On  the  Sea  Wall  there  has  recently  been 
placed  a  bronze  bust  of  Lucien  Bonaparte  Wyse, 
the  Frenchman  who  was  interested  in  the  Canal 
work  for  many  years.  It  was  the  gift  of  his 
son  to  the  Republic  of  Panama. 


grim  smile,  'for  those  costly  walls  at  Panama.'  They  ought  to  be  visible  even 
from  here."  The  cathedral,  begun  in  1673  and  completed  in  1760,  the  church 
of  San  Francisco,  and  the  ruins  of  the  convent  adjacent  thereto,  the  church  of 
San  Felipe  Neri,  founded  in  1688,  now  the  oldest  in  the  city,  the  ruins  of  Santo 
Domingo  church,  with  its  flat  arch,  the  ruins  of  the  Jesuit  college  and  convent  on 
Avenue  A,  the  remnant  of  the  old  city  walls,  are  among  the  places  that  bring  a 
sparkle  to  the  eyes  of  visitors.  Outside  the  city,  the  places  well  worth  a  visit 
include  Old  Panama,  with  its  sole  surviving  tower,  ruined  church,  catacombs, 
walls,  bridges,  and  calles;  Taboga  Island,  with  its  quaint  village  and  excellent  sea 
bathing;  Pearl  Islands,  with  its  pearl  fisheries;  Chorrera,  a  large  native  village, 

[  306   I 


Las  Sabanas  contains  the  summer  homes  of  many  of  the  wealthier  people  of  Panama.  Many 
beautiful  houses  have  been  erected  in  this  suburb.  It  is  tropical,  because  here  is  the  sign-manual 
of  the  tropics,  the  palm,  dainty  ferns  and  other  luxuriant  growths.  It  is  located  about  seven  miles 
from  Panama  City  and  is  reached  by  a  good  macadamized  road. 


:m 


ctme:  Tv\N-D  divided— cthb  wor^d,  jtkited 


20  miles  from  Panama,  near  which  are  pretty  falls;  the  lower  reaches  of  the 
Bayano  River,  haunt  of  the  alligators;  a  bit  of  the  old  Cruces  paved  trail,  which 
enters  the  Corozal  road;  the  ruins  of  the  Fort  San  Lorenzo,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Chagres  River,  and  the  ruins  of  the  forts  at  Porto  Bello.  The  oldest  church  in 
the  republic  is  at  Nata  in  the  province  of  Code,  but  it  is  not  easily  visited  unless 
one  has  the  time.  Nearly  all  the  points  of  interest  in  the  Canal  Zone,  or  in  the 
vicinity  of  Panama  or  Colon,  can  be  reached  either  by  railroad  train,  carriages, 
automobiles,  or  launches.  The  highway  from  Panama  through  Las  Sabanas 
to  the  Rio  Juan  Diaz  furnishes  a  pleasant  trip  by  carriage  or  automobile.  The 
road  winds  through  a  rolling  prairie,  where  many  of  the  wealthier  Panamanians 
have  summer  homes. 

BATHING 

There  are  a  number  of  excellent  bathing  places  on  both  sides  of  the  Isthmus. 
The  bay  at  Porto  Bello  is  a  "swimmin'  hole"  for  the  residents  of  that  village, 
and  moonlight  swimming  parties  are  held  frequently.  There  is  a  sand  beach 
near  Toro  Point,  while  at  Cristobal,  the  slips  between  the  new  docks,  and  at 
Colon,  the  swimming  pool  adjacent  to  the  new  Hotel  Washington,  are  well 
patronized.  On  the  Pacific  side,  the  cove  on  Taboga  Island,  and  the  sand 
beach  at  Pena  Prieta  are  the  two  most  desirable  places.  A  large  pavilion  has 
recently  been  erected  fronting  the  beach  at  Pena  Prieta  to  which  the  street  cars 
run.  At  Gatun,  the  lake  is  used,  and  at  Corozal,  swimming  in  the  canal  is  a 
great  pastime. 

PANAMA    HATS 

No  one  knows  exactly  how  the  word  "Panama"  came  to  be  applied  to  the 
hat  of  that  name.  An  old  hat  dealer  once  told  the  writer  that  he  thought  it 
was  because  in  the  early  day  of  the  hat's  popularity,  most  of  the  shipments  came 
through  Panama.  Only  a  few  Panamas  have  ever  been  made  on  the  Isthmus, 
and  these  were  of  the  crude  variety.  A  few  years  ago  the  Panama  Government 
opened  a  hat  school  at  a  little  village  called  Arraijan,  but  it  was  not  a  success. 
Ecuador  is  the  home  of  the  true  Panama,  although  in  recent  years,  Colombia 
and  other  nearby  countries  have  come  to  be  great  producers  of  the  cheaper 


Making  Panama  hats  at  Arraijan.    A  few  Panama  hats  are  made  here,  but  the  true 

Panama  comes  from  Ecuador. 

[  308  ] 


lB  TiAN-P    DIVIDED q^HE  WORkE>>  TTKITED 


grades.  The  most  valuable  make  of  a  Panama  hat  is  the  Montecristi,  so  named 
from  a  small  town  in  Ecuador  where  they  are  made.  This  hat  sells  in  the  local 
market  at  from  $35  to  $50,  and  would  be  worth  from  $75  to  $100  in  the  United 
States.  Visitors  to  the  Isthmus  accustomed  to  the  cheap  imitations  handled 
by  American  or  European  importers  are  at  a  loss  to  account  for  the  prices  asked 
for  a  Montecristi  hat.  All  Panama  hats  look  more  or  less  alike  to  them,  and 
they  are  ignorant  of  the  fact  that  in  fabricating  a  Montecristi  hat  of  the  best 
grade  the  time  of  several  persons  for  a  period  of  several  months  is  required. 
They  are  woven  by  hand  labor  on  the  piece-work  plan.  There  are  plenty  of 
the  cheaper  grades  handled  on  the  Isthmus,  and,  since  the  coming  of  the  tourists, 
a  brisk  business  in  them  has  sprung  up.  The  so-called  ''made  under  water" 
hat  is  a  myth. 

CANAL    ZONE    SOUVENIR    STONES 

In  excavating  the  Canal,  a  number  of  varieties  of  stones,  agates,  moon- 
stones, jaspers,  etc.,  were  found,  that,  when  properly  cut  and  polished,  made 
attractive  mountings.  Some  of  the  best  of  these  specimens  were  uncovered 
when  the  hydraulic  monitors  were  engaged  in  sluicing  material  from  the  Canal 
channel  near  Miraflores  Locks,  formerly  the  ancient  bed  of  the  Rio  Grande. 

THE    PANAMA    LOTTERY 


The  Panama  lottery  has  been  in  operation  for  many  years,  but  until  1904  it 
had  a  formidable  rival  in  roulette.  The  latter  went  out  of  existence  by  law  on 
December  31,  1904,  when  the  lottery  at  once  came  to  the  fore.  The  right  to 
sell  tickets  in  the  Canal  Zone  came  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  in  the  form  of  a  test  case  in  1904,  and  was  decided  adversely  to  the 
lottery  company.  The  Canal  employe  population  has,  however,  been  its  best 
customer.  The  drawings  are  held  each  Sunday  morning,  and  the  grand  prizes 
are  $7,500  and  $15,000,  the  larger  drawing  occurring  once  a  month  on  the 
Sunday  following  the  canal  pay  days.  The  lottery  is  operated  under  a  conces- 
sion from  the  Panama  Government,  and  the  drawings  are  supervised  by  the 


Crater  of  Chiriqui  Volcano.    This  is  the  highest  peak  in  Panama,  11,500  feet. 

has  been  extinct  for  many  years. 

[  309  ] 


The  volcano 


LOTERIA    DE    PANAMA 

Autorlzada  por  la  Ley  e«    «e   I8SI. 


SORTEO  NUMERO 


s  ftUlNTOdelnllPl*  para*.'  MrtoO  nOmero  rul!  cimt.ro- 
j  clemo»  •mntlocim  nue  «e  !,a  dc-  c-iebrar  »o  PAN  AMA 
1*1  lla  rEiNTfc  d.  C(  ITBRI:  de  IW2 


.WAV. 
I   Au    £ 


POMO 


rO 


ia     ai     mm  aiuai 


One  piece  of  a  Panama  lottery  ticket.  The 
complete  ticket  contains  five  of  these  pieces 
which  sell  for  fifty  cents  each  for  the  regular 
drawings  and  a  dollar  each  for  the  special 
drawings. 


A  view  of  one  of  the  drawings  which  take 
place  at  ten  o'clock  every  Sunday  morning. 
10,000  tickets  are  issued  weekly  and  grand 
prizes  run  from  $7,500  for  the  ordinary  draw- 
ings to  $15,000  for  the  special  drawings. 


"c>--y- .>;•;       ;,- 


•"SM^«Jl 


The  lottery  office  is  located  in  the  Bishop's  Palace,  opposite  the  Central  Park,  Panama  City. 
Tickets  cannot  be  sold  in  the  Canal  Zone  but  the  Canal  employes  are  the  best  patrons.  They 
must  purchase  their  tickets,  however,  in  Panama  City  or  Colon.  The  drawings  are  supervised  by 
the  Panama  government  and  a  certain  per  cent  of  the  profits  must  be  devoted  to  educational 
and  charitable  purposes. 

[  SlO  ] 


CTi\Ej  Tv\NP    DIVIDED CfHB  WQR^JQiyTED 

authorities.     The  proceeds  derived  by  the  government  must  by  law  be  devoted 
to  educational  and  charitable  purposes. 

PANAMA    TO    HOLD    NATIONAL    EXPOSITION 

The  four  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  discovery  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  by 
Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa  occurred  on  September  25,  1913  (October  5,  new  style). 
In  commemoration  of  this  event,  Panama  will  hold  a  national  exposition,  open- 
ing on  November  1,  1914,  and  continuing  six  months,  to  which  the  United  States, 
Spain,   and  the  countries  of  Latin-America,   including  Cuba  and  the  West 


P                               If 

\ 

Mi H                 i 

-4  ■ 
r                /I !    ; 

M      ■ 

', 

Pf^^^H                                         ^^^)^M 

^y^^Sffiftf 

l^i^JS^ 

Pr^l^^^^ 

Ia.                  Hki 

iij  •»=-< 

H 

v  *  "i  *           B?*^'  '■§■ 

mF  '  1       ^1 

L * ! ' 

r  1  1 

1  -  "  1 

1  J             m     V 

^B     ^1                          ^V »5 

4      A       < 

1  til 

^ 

^1            \    ' 

^H                     .  ^B     ^^HBj 

Laying  the  corner  stone  of  the  Panama  National  Exposition,  Sept.  26, 1913.    The  ceremony  was 
performed  by  President  Porras,  assisted  by  the  Bishop  of  Panama,  Dr.  William  Rojas. 

Indies,  have  been  invited.  A  preliminary  credit  of  $150,000  was  voted  by  the 
National  Assembly  for  the  undertaking  in  1913.  The  site  is  on  a  natural  pla- 
teau, just  east  of  Panama  City,  on  land  purchased  by  the  government  for  the 
purpose.  Half  of  this  tract  of  700  acres  will  be  laid  for  the  exposition  grounds, 
with  avenues  88  feet  wide  running  east  and  west,  and  streets  60  feet  wide,  run- 
ning north  and  south.  The  grounds  front  on  Las  Sabanas  road,  and  will  have 
one  main  and  two  smaller  entrances,  opening  into  a  small  park  set  out  with 
tropic  trees  and  plants.  In  another  part  of  the  grounds  will  be  an  artificial 
lagoon.  A  gift  of  a  plot  of  ground  has  been  made  each  to  the  United  States  and 
Spain  for  the  erection  of  buildings,  while  two  other  plots  have  been  reserved  by 
Panama  for  its  exhibits.  These  building  sites  are  situated  one  on  each  of  the 
four  corners  of  the  grounds,  and  from  them  a  pretty  view  of  the  bay,  Ancon  Hill, 
Ancon,  Panama  and  environs  may  be  obtained. 

[  311  ] 


CTMB  T>AN-D_,  DIVIDED —-<rrH&  WQgJ^ IJNJTED 


September  25,  1913  was  declared  a 
national  holiday  in  Panama,  and  the 
day  was  made  the  occasion  of  the  for- 
mal inauguration  of  work  at  the  exposi- 
tion   grounds.        The  exercises  were 
attended    by   government  and   Canal 
officials,  and    members  of   the  diplo- 
matic corps.     They  consisted  princi- 
pally of  laying  the  corner  stone  of  the 
Administration  Building  by  President 
Porras,  and  an  address  by  Mr.  Ramon 
F.  Acevedo,  who  outlined  the  govern- 
ment's plans.    The  managing  director 
is  Mr.  Alejandro  Bermudez,  who  was 
the  Nicaraguan  commissioner  to  the 
Pan-American  Exposition  at  Buffalo, 
and  the  St.  Louis  Fair.    Visitors  pass- 
ing through  the  Canal  en  rowfeforthe 
San   Francisco   fair  will    be   afforded 
an   opportunity   of   seeing  the   Canal 
and  the  exposition  at  the  same  time. 
A  movement  was  started  by  President  Porras  in  1913  for  the  erection  of  a 
monument  in  honor  of  Balboa  near  the  Pacific  entrance  to  the  Canal.    King 
Alfonso  of  Spain  has  personally  donated  the  sum  of  $10,000  for  the  purpose,  and 
Panama  a  like  amount.     It  is  expected  to  raise  a  fund  of  $75,000  or  $100,000. 


Tracy  Robinson,  of  Colon,  who  has  resided 
on  the  Isthmus  longer  than  any  other  living 
American,  celebrated  the  fiftieth  anniversary 
of  his  residence  there  in  1912. 


Sunset  on  Panama  Bay      In  the  evening  with  the  advent  of  the  splendid  sunset,  a  panorama 
of  radiant  glory  round  the  whole  dome  of  the  sky  is  spread  out. 

\  312  ] 


Jand  Divided- 
World  United 


HE  last  two  steam  shovels  at  work  in  bottom  excavation  in  Culebra  Cut 
were  withdrawn  on  September  10,  1913.  These  were  shovel  No.  204, 
manned  by  H.  S.  Hayes,  engineer,  and  A.  E.  Alexander,  craneman; 
and  shovel  No.  226,  manned  by  Al.  Geddes,  engineer,  and  W.  I. 
Hudson,  craneman.  The  last  trainload  of  material  was  drawn  out  of  the  Cut 
by  engine  No.  260,  with  E.  C.  Bean,  as  engineer,  and  E.  A.  Donnelly,  as  con- 
ductor. It  was  10:30  a.  m.  when  the  last  dippersful  were  loaded.  In  the  hurry 
to  get  one  more  dipperful  on  the  cars  as  the  train  got  under  way  the  craneman  of 
shovel  No.  226  dumped  its  load  on  the  coal  tender  of  the  locomotive,  completely 
filling  it.  The  train  proceeded  a  short  distance,  but  was  forced  to  stop  until 
the  dirt  could  be  shoveled  off  the  coal  before  continuing  the  trip.  The  very 
last  shovel  out  of  the  Cut  Mas  on  the  following  day,  September  11,  when  shovel 
No.  210,  manned  by  Frank  Loulan,*  engineer,  and  S.  H.  Bryan,  craneman, 
which  had  been  working  to  keep  the  track  around  Cucaracha  slide  clear,  was 
withdrawn.  Thus  the  reign  of  King  Yardage  on  the  Canal,  which  had  con- 
tinned  with  but  one  interruption  for  a  period  of  over  31  years,  came  to  an  end 
so  far  as  excavation  in  the  dry  was  concerned. 

DESTRUCTION    OF    THE    DIKKS 

On  May  1,  1913,  there  existed  four  dikes  in  the  Canal  prism,  all  used  at  one 
time  or  another  in  keeping  water  out  of  dry  sections.  Two  of  these  dikes  were 
situated  south  of  Miraflores  Locks,  one  north  of  Gatun  Locks,  and  the  last  and 
most  important  was  known  as  Gamboa  dike,  which  prevented  the  waters  of 
Gatun  Lake  from  entering  Culebra  Cut.  The  first  dike  to  be  dynamited  was 
that  which  kept  the  waters  of  the  Pacific  from  entering  a  section  of  the  channel 
which  had  been  partly  excavated  by  hydraulic  monitors.  The  event  took  place 
at  10:38  a.  m.,  on  Sunday,  May  18,  and  was  witnessed  by  a  large  crowd  of 
people.  The  charge  consisted  of  32,750  pounds  of  60  per  cent,  dynamite,  and 
was  distributed  among  120  holes,  some  as  deep  as  70  feet.     The  blast  flattened 

r  313 1 


q^HB  Tv\N-P  .  DIVIDED gfHB  WQ^^B,  ITKITgP 

out  one  end  of  the  dike  but  did  not  admit  the  water  at  once.  The  ladder 
dredge  Corozal,  the  largest  in  the  Canal  service,  was  put  to  work  on  the  remain- 
der of  the  dike  and  soon  had  a  passage  through. 

The  blowing  up  of  the  sole  remaining  barrier  between  Miraflores  Locks 
and  the  sea,  which  occurred  at  9:30  o'clock  on  Sunday  morning,  August  31, 
was  a  much  more  interesting  spectacle.  In  this  dike  there  had  been  placed 
37,500  pounds  of  45  and  60  per  cent,  dynamite,  distributed  among  541  holes  at 
an  average  depth  of  30  feet,  concentrated  in  about  the  center.  The  blast  tore 
a  gap  in  the  barrier,  but  as  the  water  in  the  channel  outside  was  at  low  tide,  it 
did  not  flow  over.  Gradually,  however,  the  tide  crept  up  until  at  1 :35  p.  m. 
it  was  nearly  even  with  the  top.  At  this  moment,  a  man  seized  a  shovel  and 
made  a  trench  across  the  top  of  the  gap  through  which  a  rill  began  to  flow. 
This  soon  increased  to  a  good-sized  stream,  then  to  a  river,  and  lastly  to  a  raging 
torrent,  carrying  away  sections  of  the  dike  each  succeeding  moment,  until  at 
3  o'clock,  when,  with  the  pit  5,000  feet  long,  500  feet  wide,  and  46  feet  deep 
completely  filled,  the  gap  had  widened  to  400  feet.  The  end  of  this  barrier 
signalized  the  practical  completion  of  a  sea  level  channel  deep  enough  for  ocean- 
going steamships  all  the  way  from  Miraflores  Locks  to  the  sea,  a  distance  of 
8^  miles. 

Gatun  dike  was  a  barrier  that  at  one  time  kept  the  water  in  the  Atlantic 
channel  cutoff  theforebay  of  Gatun  Locks.  It  was  also  used  as  a  crossing  from 
the  east  to  the  west  bank.  Two  pipe  line  suction  dredges  began  the  removal  of 
this  dike,  which  was  eight  feet  above  sea  level,  and  75  feet  wide  across  the  top, 
on  September  2,  1913,  no  dynamite  being  necessary.  On  October  1,  ocean- 
going steamships  were  able  to  navigate  the  Atlantic  channel  to  Gatun  Locks. 

The  last  and  most  momentous  event  of  the  kind  was  the  destruction  of 
Gamboa  Dike  on  Friday,  October  10,  and  while  the  waters  of  the  two  oceans 
did  not  join  on  that  day,  it  presaged  the  near  approach  of  that  long  looked  for 
occasion.  Gamboa  Dike  was  built  in  1908  to  protect  Culebra  Cut  from  inun- 
dation by  freshets  in  the  Chagres  River.  During  the  flood  of  December,  1906, 
the  river  rose  to  81.6  feet  at  Gamboa,  but  this  was  before  the  dike  was  built  and 
before  the  Bas  Obispo  section  of  Culebra  Cut  had  been  completed.  During 
the  flood  of  November,  1909,  the  water  rose  to  a  height  of  72.6  feet,  and  came 
so  close  to  the  top  of  the  dike,  which  was  then  at  71  feet  above  sea  level,  that 
sluice  gates  were  opened  to  fill  the  Cut  with  water  to  the  level  of  the  river  to 
avoid  heavy  washing  in  case  a  break  occurred.  Since  that  year  the  safety  of 
the  dike  has  never  been  menaced.  When  Gatun  Lake  rose  to  over  50  feet  in 
the  latter  part  of  1912,  the  dike  was  widened  to  an  average  of  50  feet  by  dumping 
clay  on  the  side  toward  the  Cut,  and  raised  to  an  elevation  of  78.2  feet  above  sea 
level.  It  contained  about  90,000  cubic  yards  of  material,  and  in  mining  for 
its  complete  destruction,  a  total  of  1,277  drill  holes  were  sunk,  which  if  placed 
end  to  end  would  equal  41,166  lineal  feet.  Two  hundred  of  the  holes  were 
made  by  tripod  drills,  the  balance  by  well  or  churn  drills. 

LETTING    WATER    INTO    CULEBRA    CUT 

Culebra  Cut,  between  Cucaracha  slide  and  Gamboa  dike,  contained  22.7 
feet  of  water  when  the  dike  was  destroyed  on  October  10.  It  was  early  decided 
that  it  would  be  unwise  to  allow  the  Cut  to  fill  from  the  full  head  of  the  flow  from 

[  314   I 


CTHB  Tv\NP    DIVIDED CTHB  WOELLjD,  TTKITED 

Gatun  Lake,  and  October  1,  therefore,  the  valves  in  five  24-inch  pipes  extending 
into  the  lake  beneath  Gamboa  dike  were  opened.  Subsequently  a  sixth  pipe 
was  brought  into  service,  and  all  were  continued  in  use  up  to  the  day  of  the 
explosion,  filling  the  Cut  to  the  depth  above  stated. 

"gamboa  is  busted" 

"Gamboa  is  busted!"  are  the  words  President  Woodrow  Wilson  is  credited 
with  having  used,  when  he  pressed  the  button  at  the  White  House  in  Washington 
at  2  p.  m.,  on  Friday,  October  10,  setting  off  the  blast  which  destroyed  the  last 
artificial  barrier  in  the  Canal.  According  to  the  local  official  timing  it  was 
exactly  2 :02,  when  the  thousands  who  were  watching  an  insignificant  embank- 
ment on  which  the  eyes  of  the  world  has  been  fastened  for  weeks,  with  bated 
breath,  saw  a  giant  puff  of  smoke,  the  hurtling  of  rocks,  mud,  and  other  debris 
high  in  air,  and  heard  the  muffled  roar  of  the  explosion,  always  a  few  seconds 
behind. 

Colonel  Goethals  had  planned  to  blow  up  the  dike  at  9  a.  m.,  on  October 
10,  and  had  already  announced  the  hour,  but  a  message  was  received  from 
Washington  shortly  afterward,  asking  if  it  would  be  agreeable  for  the  President 
to  fire  the  charge,  and  if  so,  if  the  change  in  time  to  2  p.  m.  would  be  convenient. 
The  Colonel  replied  that  he  woidd  be  pleased  to  have  the  President  fire  the  blast. 
The  spark  that  made  the  water  bridge  of  the  Canal  practically  continuous  was 
sent  over  4,000  miles  of  telegraph  and  cable  lines,  from  Washington  to  Galveston, 
Texas,  by  the  Western  Union  Wire,  and  from  that  point  to  Gamboa  dike  by 
way  of  the  Central  &  South  American  Cable  Company's  cable.  At  the  dike, 
it  was  connected  to  a  local  circuit,  which,  in  turn,  operated  the  switch  that 
fired  the  blast. 

While  not  a  holiday  on  the  Isthmus,  yet  everyone  that  could  get  excused 
from  his  work  was  present,  and  a  crowd  of  people,  probably  3,000  in  number, 
lined  the  banks  of  the  Canal,  or  sought  a  more  commanding  position  on  the 
nearby  hills.  Only  a  portion  of  the  dike  was  dynamited,  but  the  shot  was  a 
perfect  one,  making  a  comparatively  clean  opening  125  feet  in  width,  through 
which  water  from  the  lake  flowed  in  sufficient  volume  as  to  bring  the  water 
already  in  the  Cut  to  lake  level  within  two  hours'  time.  When  the  dike  was 
destroyed  the  stage  of  water  in  the  lake  was  67.7,  and  that  in  the  Cut  61.7,  a 
difference  of  only  six  feet.  The  explosion  was  not  a  large  one,  as  compared 
with  some  of  the  others  shot  off  in  connection  with  the  Canal  work.  Only  eight 
tons  of  explosive  were  used,  the  charges  being  planted  in  400  holes  from  20  to  35 
feet  in  depth.  The  remainder  of  the  dike,  which  included  a  hard  rock  section, 
was  blown  up  on  October  17.  Dredge  No.  5,  which  was  passed  through  Gatun 
Locks  on  October  9,  began  work  soon  after  the  blast  of  October  10,  removing 
the  remainder  of  the  obstruction. 

Gamboa  Dike  was  mainly  important  from  its  position  as  it  kept  the  water 
in  Gatun  Lake  from  entering  the  9-mile  section  of  Culebra  Cut,  and  was  the 
only  remaining  artificial  bar  to  a  continuous  waterway  from  Gatun  Locks  to 
Pedro  Miguel  Locks.  This  fact  was  heralded  around  the  globe,  and  the  interest 
of  the  world  on  October  10  centered  on  the  small  embankment  of  rock  and  earth. 
Its  destruction  was  attended  with  much  rejoicing  in  all  parts  of  the  United 
States;  celebrations  were  held  in  a  number  of  cities,  and  the  press  of  Europe 

[  315  ] 


TvAN-D    DIVIDED —CTHE:  ViOTZUfo  TTKITED 

reflected  the  following  sentiment  expressed  in  the  London  Times,  "The  final 
stage  today  is  an  event  in  the  history  of  mankind  of  which  the  whole  human 
race  has  reason  to  be  proud." 

GATUN    LOCKS,    THE    FIRST    IN    ACTUAL    OPERATION 

The  first  passage  of  a  vessel  through  a  set  of  the  Canal  locks  occurred  on 
September  26,  1913,  when  the  tug  Gatun  was  lifted  from  the  sea  channel  to  the 
Gatun  Lake  level,  using  the  west  flight.  This  date  was  chosen,  because  of  the 
departure  from  the  Isthmus  of  Maj.  James  P.  Jervey,  who  had  charge  of  the 
masonry  construction  of  Gatun  Locks,  and  of  Maj.  George  M.  Hoffman,  who 
had  charge  of  the  building  of  Gatun  Dam,  as  assistants  to  their  chief,  Lieut.- 
Col.   William  L.   Sibert. 

The  filling  of  the  lower  lock  was  completed  at  4:45  p.  m.,  when  the  sea 
gate  was  opened,  and  the  Gatun  with  flags  flying  and  whistle  blowing  steamed 
up  the  approach  channel  and  past  the  entrance  to  the  lower  lock,  amid  the 
cheers  of  the  assembled  spectators.  The  lower  operating  gates  were  then  closed, 
and  the  tug  came  to  a  stop  alongside  the  center  wall.  The  process  was  repeated 
in  the  middle  lock,  and  at  6:15,  just  as  the  short  tropic  dusk  was  falling,  the 
vessel  entered  the  upper  lock  for  the  last  lift.  This  was  accomplished  at  6:45 
p.  m.,  when  the  two  last  gates  were  swung  open,  and  the  tug  passed  out  on  the 
gently  heaving  bosom  of  Gatun  Lake,  the  entire  passage  occupying  one  hour  and 
51  minutes.  In  order  to  save  time  on  the  ascent  the  short  length  of  lock  was 
used,  bringing  the  intermediate  gates  into  play.  The  total  lift  was  approxi- 
mately 64.70  feet,  divided  between  the  three  locks,  as  follows:  Lower  Lock,  11.2 
feet;  Middle  Lock,  23.7  feet;  Upper  Lock,  29.8  feet. 

The  Gatun,  which  possesses  the  honor  of  having  been  the  first  boat  to  pass 
any  of  the  locks  of  the  Canal,  is  a  seagoing  tug,  with  a  length  of  101  feet,  beam 
22  feet,  and  a  draft  of  12|  feet.  It  was  built  by  the  firm  of  Neafie  &  Levy  of 
Philadelphia,  and  was  first  named  the  H.  B.  Chamberlain.  It  was  purchased 
by  the  Canal  Commission  and  brought  to  the  Isthmus  in  1906.  In  its  passage 
through  the  locks,  it  was  commanded  by  Capt.  F.  F.  Stewart,  while  Mr.  W.  G. 
Comber  acted  as  chief  navigator.  It  carried  as  passengers  on  this  memorable 
trip,  Col.  H.  F.  Hodges,  Lieut.-Col.  W.  L.  Sibert  and  family,  Maj.  James  P. 
Jervey,  and  Mrs.  Jervey,  Maj.  George  M.  Hoffman,  Lieut.  Geo.  R.  Goethals, 
and  Mrs.  Geothals,  Mr.  Henry  Goldmark,  Mrs.  Edward  Schildhauer,  Mrs.  E. 
E.  Lee,  Capt.  B.  Corning  of  the  steamship  Panama  of  the  Panama  Railroad 
Steamship  Line,  and  Mr.  Frank  Thompson  of  the  Panama  Railroad. 

On  the  following  day,  September  27,  the  Gatun  was  returned  to  the  At- 
lantic channel,  the  lockage  occupying  one  hour  and  37  minutes. 

THE    FIRST    PRACTICAL    LOCKAGE 

On  October  9,  1913,  three  groups  of  dredging  vessels  and  a  floating 
piledriver,  in  tow  of  tugs,  a  total  of  13  vessels,  were  lifted  at  one  time  from  the 
Atlantic  entrance  channel  to  the  surface  of  Gatun  Lake,  using  the  entire  1,000- 
foot  length  of  each  chamber.  This  performance  more  nearly  demonstrated 
the  utility  of  the  locks  in  commercial  and  naval  use  than  the  passage  of  the  lone 
tug  on  September  26.  The  first  group  entered  the  lower  lock  at  9 :50  a.  m.,  and 
the  rear  group  passed  into  Gatun  Lake  at  12:40  p.  m.  The  first  group  con- 
sisted of  the  tug  Bohio,  with  a  tow  of  one  600-ton  barge  loaded  with  piles  and 

f  316  1 


CTHE  Tv\N-P  .DIVIDED—  CTHB  WOBX?B,  TTMITED 

500  tons  of  coal,  and  two  old  cement  barges  loaded  with  250  tons  of  coal  each. 
The  second  group  comprised  the  tug  Gatun,  with  suction  dredge  No.  86,  several 
pontoons,  and  a  fuel  oil  barge  in  tow.  The  third  group  consisted  of  the  tug 
Empire,  with  French  ladder  dredge  No.  5,  two  dump  scows,  and  a  floating 
piledriver.  A  motor  launch  and  several  native  canoes  followed  in  the  rear. 
After  entering  upon  the  lake  the  dredges  and  auxiliary  equipment  were  towed 
south  to  Gamboa  dike,  to  begin  dredging  operations  in  the  Culebra  Cut 
section.  Probably  the  most  practical  illustration  afforded  by  this  lockage  was 
the  cheapness  at  which  1,000  tons  of  coal  were  conveyed  to  destination,  as 
compared  with  the  cost  of  getting  it  to  the  same  point  by  rail. 

On  October  22,  fifteen  more  vessels  of  the  Atlantic  dredging  fleet  were 
passed  through  Gatun  Locks,  to  be  in  readiness  to  begin  operations  in  Culebra 
Cut. 

FIRST    LOCKAGE    AT    PACIFIC    END 

On  October  14,  the  tug  Miraflores,  with  three  barges,  old  French  clapet 
No.  6,  and  the  steam  launch  Birdena,  made  the  first  lockage  at  the  Pacific  end, 
and  were  raised  together  through  the  west  flight  at  Miraflores  Locks  to  the 
surface  of  Miraflores  Lake,  an  elevation  of  38.62  feet.  As  in  the  case  of  Gatun 
Locks,  the  gates  and  operating  machinery  worked  perfectly,  the  operation  last- 
ing one  hour  and  30  minutes.  The  locks  at  Pedro  Miguel  were  in  readiness  to 
pass  the  vessels  into  the  Cut,  but  owing  to  an  insufficient  depth  of  water  south  of 
Cucaracha  slide,  this  step  was  postponed  to  a  later  date.  The  tug,  clapet,  and 
launch  returned  to  the  Pacific  entrance,  and  were  passed  through  the  locks  on 
the  downward  trip  in  45  minutes.  While  the  blowing  up  of  Gamboa  dike  was 
a  feature  that  appealed  to  the  popular  mind,  the  fact  that  the  locks  and  their 
huge,  but  delicate  mechanism,  passed  the  tests  with  flying  colors,  was  the  source 
of  greatest  pleasure  to  the  men  on  the  job. 

FROM  THE  SEA  TO  CULEBRA  CUT 

The  passage  of  both  of  the  Pacific  Locks  was  successfully  accomplished  on 
October  24,  when  dredge  No.  85,  towed  by  the  tug  Miraflores,  and  accom- 
panied by  the  steam  launches  Birdena  and  Louise,  towing  a  fuel  oil  lighter,  a 
lighter  for  repair  parts,  and  clapet  No.  9,  and  steam  launch  j^o.  26  towing 
discharge  pipe  for  the  dredge  on  pontoons,  was  lifted  through  Miraflores  Locks 
to  Miraflores  Lake,  and  through  the  east  chamber  of  the  single  lock  at  Pedro 
Miguel  for  the  lift  to  the  surface  level  of  the  water  in  Culebra.  The  tows 
entered  the  lower  lock  chamber  at  Miraflores  at  9:04  a.  m.,  the  upper  level  at 
9:45,  and  Miraflores  Lake  at  10:20.  Passing  across  Miraflores  Lake,  the  fore- 
most vessels  entered  Pedro  Miguel  Lock  at  11 :10  a.  in.,  and  passed  into  Culebra 
Cut  at  11:52.  The  dredge  was  then  towed  to  the  foot  of  Cucaracha  slide,  and 
began  its  work  of  excavation  on  October  26. 

EARTHQUAKES 

It  was  an  extraordinary  coincidence  that  the  day  water  was  admitted  to 
Culebra  Cut  there  should  occur  the  hardest  earthquake  shock  that  has  been 
experienced  on  the  Isthmus  since  September  7,  1882.  That  it  was  more  than  a 
coincidence  none  but  the  superstitious  will  allow,  although  there  are  some  that 

f  317  ] 


cmB  T^ANP  .  divided  ^crn&  WORLjD,  ttkited 


have  tried  to  establish  a  connection  between  it  and  the  Canal  enterprise,  possibly 
having  in  mind  the  admonition  of  the  Spanish  friar  delivered  when  the  project 
was  first  given  serious  consideration,  which  was  "What  God  hath  joined  to- 
gether, let  no  man  put  asunder."  To  the  more  practical,  however,  it  afforded 
an  excellent  test  of  the  stability  of  the  Canal  locks  and  their  equipment,  and 
demonstrated  that  it  will  take  a  much  greater  shock  than  any  hitherto  expe- 
rienced on  the  Isthmus  to  make  an  impression  on  the  lock  structures. 

The  first  tremor  in  the  series  occurred  at  1:48  p.  m.,  on  October  1,  1913, 
and  passed  unnoticed,  although  registered  on  the  instrument  at  the  Ancon 
seismograph  station.  The  heavy  shock  came  at  11:25  that  night,  and  con- 
tinued for  the  space  of  about  25  seconds.  It  brought  nearly  everyone  out  of 
their  beds  and  into  the  streets,  especially  in  the  cities  of  Panama  and  Colon  and 
the  interior  towns.  The  movement  registered  Force  IV  on  the  Rossi-Forel 
scale,  I  to  X,  and  was  the  strongest  shake  experienced  in  the  history  of  the 
Ancon  seismograph  station.  Despite  alarming  reports  first  sent  out,  no  damage 
was  done  to  any  part  of  the  Canal  work,  or  to  buildings  in  Panama,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  slight  cracks  which  developed  in  the  concrete  walls  of 
houses.  The  seismograph  indicated  the  epicenter  of  the  disturbance  as  being 
115  miles  to  the  southwest,  which  established  it  at  a  point  off  the  coast  of  Los 
Santos  province.  Reports  from  towns  in  this  province  on  the  day  following 
the  first  severe  shock  indicated  that  the  maximum  force  of  the  movement  was 
felt  there;  several  houses  were  damaged  in  the  villages  of  Los  Santos,  Las 
Tablas,  Macaracas,  and  Tonosi,  and  in  two  or  three  towns  church  towers  were 
overturned.  At  Tonosi,  near  the  seat  of  the  trouble,  landslides  occurred  in  the 
nearby  mountains,  and  cracks  opened  in  the  ground.  The  Central  and  South 
American  Cable  Company's  cable  broke  at  a  point  about  15  miles  off  the  coast  of 
Los  Santos  province,  and  in  repairing  the  break  it  was  ascertained  that  the  bed  of 
the  ocean,  formerly  about  1,000  feet  below  the  surface  in  that  vicinity,  is  now 
4,800  feet,  indicating  that  the  ocean  bottom  had  sunk.  The  cable  was  found 
buried  beneath  a  huge  submarine  landslide.  History  of  the  earthquakes  local 
to  this  part  of  the  Isthmus  shows  that  in  nearly  every  case  the  maximum  in- 
tensity has  been  felt  in  Los  Santos  province.  As  proof  of  this,  it  is  stated  that 
the  tower  of  the  church  in  the  village  of  Los  Santos  has  been  overthrown  three 
different  times,  and  that  this  is  the  third  time  the  cable  has  broken  since  it  was 
first  laid.  It  was  broken  on  the  night  of  October  1  at  the  splice  made  after  the 
break  of  September  7,  1882.  It  would  also  appear  that  the  earthquake  zone  of 
the  Isthmus  is  separate  and  distinct  from  that  of  Costa  Rica,  for  the  great 
Cartago  quake  of  1910  was  not  felt  in  Panama,  nor  was  the  recent  disturbance 
here  felt  in  Costa  Rica,  although  there  is  less  than  400  miles  of  distance  between. 
A  commission,  consisting  of  Mr.  D.  F.  McDonald,  the  Canal  geologist,  and  Mr. 
W.  C.  Johnston,  the  assistant  chief  engineer  of  the  Republic  of  Panama,  was 
sent  to  the  province  of  Los  Santos  at  the  instance  of  the  Panama  Government 
to  make  a  complete  investigation  of  the  disturbances.  After  the  hard  shock  of 
October  1,  the  tremors  continued  at  irregular  intervals,  and  during  the  month 
of  October  upward  of  40  were  recorded,  only  four  of  which  were  pronounced. 

The  report  of  the  special  board  of  engineers,  consisting  of  Messrs.  Frederic 
P.  Stearns,  Arthur  P.  Davis,  Henry  A.  Allen,  James  D.  Schuyler,  Isham  Ran- 
dolph, John  11.  Freeman,  and  Allen  Hazen,  appointed  by  ex-President  Roose- 
velt to  investigate  certain  features  of  Canal  construction,  which  was  submitted 

[  318   | 


CTHE<  TvANP  /DIVIDED qfTLE:  WOBJyB-IJNJTED 

to  Congress  on  February  16,  1909,  has  the  following  to  say  on  the  possibility  of 
damage  to  the  Canal  by  earthquakes: 

"It  has  been  suggested  that  the  Canal  region  is  liable  to  earthquake 
shocks,  and  that  a  sea  level  canal  would  be  less  subject  to  injury  by  earth- 
quakes than  a  lock  Canal. 

"We  have  seen  in  the  city  of  Panama  the  ruins  of  an  old  church,  said  to 
have  been  destroyed  by  fire,  containing  a  long  and  extremely  flat  arch  of  great 
age,  which  convinces  us  that  there  has  been  no  earthquake  shock  on  the  Isthmus 
during  the  one-hundred  and  fifty  years,  more  or  less,  that  this  structure  has  been 
in  existence,  that  would  have  injured  the  work  proposed. 

"Dams  and  locks  are  structures  of  great  stability  and  little  subject  to 
damage  by  earthquake  shocks.  The  successful  resistance  of  the  dams  and 
reservoirs  supplying  San  Francisco  with  water,  even  when  those  structures  were 
located  near  the  line  of  fault  of  the  earthquake,  gives  confidence  in  the  ability 
of  well-designed  masonry  structures  and  earth  embankments  to  resist  earth- 
quake shocks. 

"We  do  not  regard  such  shocks  as  a  source  of  serious  damage  to  any  type 
of  Canal  at  the  Isthmus,  but  if  they  were  so,  their  effort  on  the  dams,  locks,  and 
regulating  works  proposed  for  the  sea  level  Canal  would  be  much  the  same  as 
upon  similar  structures  of  the  lock  Canal." 

The  hardest  shock  which  the  Isthmus  has  experienced  since  its  discovery 
is  believed  to  have  been  that  of  September  7,  1882,  but  the  famous  flat  arch 
passed  through  unscathed,  although  the  facade  of  the  Cathedral  fell  in,  and 
the  old  Cabildo,  or  town  hall,  was  badly  cracked.     Fissures  also  opened  in  the 


Interior  of  the  meteorological  station  at  Ancon  which  houses  a  set  of  seismograph  instruments. 

[  319  1 


CTKB  Tv\NP  .  DIVIDED —^rHK  WORkD>  TTNJTED 

ground  at  that  time  at  Colon,  and  along  the  bank  of  the  Chagres  River,  and  the 
stone  church  at  Cruces  was  destroyed.  The  flat  arch  above  alluded  to  has 
stood  in  the  ruins  of  Santo  Domingo  church  for  206  years.  This  arch  has  a 
span  of  over  40  feet,  and  a  rise  of  two;  and  it  would  not  require  a  terrific  shock 
to  bring  it  down.  The  church  in  which  this  arch  is  found  was  built  by  the 
brethren  of  St.  Dominic.  History  relates  that  when  the  arch  was  first  built  it  fell. 
It  was  rebuilt  and  fell  again,  and  also  a  third  time.  The  fourth  time  it  was 
built  its  designer,  one  of  the  friars,  stood  beneath  while  the  supports  were 
being  removed,  saying  that  if  it  was  well  made  he  would  not  be  crushed.  It 
did  not  fall. 

MAKING    A    PASSAGE    THROUGH    CUCARACHA    SLIDE 

But  for  Cucaracha  slide,  Culebra  Cut  would  have  been  navigable  for  boats 
drawing  25  feet  of  water  all  the  way  from  Gamboa  Dike  to  Pedro  Miguel  Locks, 
immediately  after  the  blast  of  October  10.  This  slide,  which  has  proved  the 
most  troublesome  of  any  on  the  Canal,  entirely  blocked  the  Cut  on  October  10 
up  to  the  73-foot  level,  so  that  when  the  Cut  between  the  dike  and  the  slide  was 
at  lake  level,  the  water  was  still  about  six  feet  below  the  top  of  the  barrier  at 
Cucaracha.  An  effort  was  at  once  made  to  pass  the  water  through  to  the  section 
of  the  Cut  between  the  slide  and  Pedro  Miguel  Locks  by  digging  a  trench  with 
pick  and  shovel.  The  attempt  proved  futile  as  the  material  slid  in  and  filled 
the  ditch  almost  as  fast  as  it  was  removed.  Sluicing  then  resorted  to,  aided 
by  blasting,  did  not  give  much  better  results,  so  that  on  October  20,  dredge  No. 
86  was  taken  through  the  Cut  from  Gamboa  and  set  at  work  pumping  water 
over  the  slide. 

SECRETARY    GARRISON'S    VISIT 

Secretary  of  War,  Lindley  M.  Garrison,  paid  his  first  visit  to  the  Canal 
work  on  October  28,  1913,  remaining  on  the  Isthmus  one  week.  On  October 
30  he  was  lifted  through  Gatun  Locks  from  sea  level  to  Gatun  Lake  level  in 
French  clapet  No.  4,  continuing  the  trip  through  the  lake  section  and  Culebra 
Cut  as  far  as  Cucaracha  slide  in  a  tug.  Before  leaving  the  Isthmus,  he  gave  out 
an  official  statement,  which,  in  part,  was  as  follows: 

"I  think  the  canal  is  a  work  of  magnificent  import,  magnificently  done.  I 
have  seen  everything  susceptible  to  inspection,  and,  literally,  it  is  an  instance 
of  one  marvel  succeeding  to  another.  The  people  of  our  country  are  justified 
in  feeling  the  utmost  pride  in  the  successful  accomplishment  of  this  most 
remarkable  work." 

THE    OFFICIAL    OPENING 

The  Panama  Canal  will  be  formally  opened  to  the  commerce  of  the  seven 
seas  on  July  4,  1915,  although  both  commercial  and  naval  vessels  will 
probably  have  used  it  many  times  before  then.  A  great  naval  display  in  cele- 
bration of  the  event  in  which  the  fleets  of  foreign  countries  will  be  invited  to 
participate.  The  fleets  will  probably  assemble  at  Hampton  Roads,  Va.,  and 
after  paying  their  respects  to  the  President  at  Washington,  will  sail  for  the 
Isthmus  to  arrive  in  time  for  the  opening  day.     It  is  improbable  that  all  the 

f  320  1 


CTHB  TvAN-D    DIVIDED cTHE  WOGLDD,  TTNJTEP 

vessels  taking  part  in  the  pageant  can  be  locked  through  on  the  official  day, 
but  the  representatives  of  different  countries  present  may  be  taken  through  on 
specially  selected  vessels,  and  the  remainder  of  the  ships  can  follow  later,  pro- 
ceeding to  San  Francisco,  where  they  will  take  part  in  the  festivities  of  the 
Panama-Pacific  Exposition. 

FIRST  STEAMSHIP   PASSAGE. 

The  United  States  War  Department  steamship  Ancon,  on  August  15, 
1914,  made  the  passage  through  the  Canal,  and  transit  through  the  waterway 
became  officially  open  to  the  traffic  of  the  world. 

The  Ancon  left  its  berth  at  Cristobal  at  7  o'clock  a.  m.  and  made  its  way 
to  the  end  of  the  deep  water  channel  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Gatun  locks. 
It  went  through  these  locks,  which  have  a  lift  of  eighty-five  feet,  in  seventy 
minutes.  It  continued  through  the  waterway,  from  deep  water  on  the  Atlantic 
to  deep  water  on  the  Pacific,  without  incident. 

The  decks  of  the  Ancon  were  crowded  with  guests  of  the  government  and 
officials  of  the  Canal  administration  and  the  republic  of  Panama.  The  party 
included  Colonel  Goethals,  U.  S.  A.,  builder  of  the  Canal  and  governor  of  the 
Zone;  President  Porras  of  Panama,  and  Capt.  Hugh  Rodman,  U.  S.  N., 
superintendent  of  transportation. 

In  conformity  with  a  promise  made  by  Colonel  Goethals,  the  peace  flag  of 
the  American  Peace  Society  fluttered  from  the  foremast  of  the  Ancon. 

The  passage  of  the  Ancon  and  its  company  of  ships  permanently  opened 
the  Canal  to  shipping,  the  formal  opening  was  arranged  to  take  place  later  on. 
Tickets  are  now  sold  at  the  Isthmus  to  all  vessels  wishing  to  make  the  trip.  The 
charge  is  $1.25  a  ton,  which  is  purely  nominal  in  view  of  the  fact  that  it  cuts 
about  10,000  miles  and  two  months  of  almost  continuous  steaming  from  the  time 
required  for  the  ordinary  freighter  to  go  around  South  America  to  a  position  in 
the  Pacific  opposite  the  Canal.  The  volume  of  traffic  is  increasing  steadily. 
During  the  first  three  months  of  operation  the  cargoes  transported  through  the 
Canal  amounted  to  1,079,521  tons.  The  fees  collected  up  to  November  1,  1914, 
amounted  to  $746,793.01. 

DISTANCES  SAVED  BY  THE  CANAL. 

A  ship  going  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco  will  save  9,000  miles  by 
going  through  the  Canal,  and  Peru  and  Chile  are  brought  nearer  to  New  York 
than  is  San  Francisco. 

The  Canal  will  save  these  distances  between  New  York  and  foreign  coun- 
tries: Ecuador,  7,400  miles;  Japan,  4,000  miles;  Hawaii,  6,600  miles.  Curi- 
ously enough  the  distance  from  Manila  to  New  York  js  only  14  miles  shorter 
than  by  way  of  the  Suez  Canal,  while  Hongkong  is  18  miles  farther.  (See  map 
of  Trade  Routes  on  page  256.) 

EARNINGS  AND  COST  OF  OPERATION. 

The  toll  charge  made  is  expected  to  return  $12,500,000  to  the  Canal  treas- 
ury in  the  first  year  of  operation,  which  will  cover  the  $4,000,000  a  year  cost  of 
operation,  and  almost  cover  the  additional  $11,000,000  interest  on  the  money 
required  to  build  the  waterway.  Judging  by  the  experiences  of  the  Suez  Canal, 
the  Panama  waterway  will  be  carrying  20,000,000  tons  of  freight  in  a  few  years 
and  on  that  basis  a  reduction  of  the  tolls  would  be  possible. 

[321] 


Last  dipperful  of  dirt  taken  out  of  Culebra  Cut  by  Steam  Shovel  No.  226. 


I  322  ] 


Blowing  up  the  first  dike  at  Miraflores  on  May  18,  1913.    This  let  water  into  a  completed 
section  of  the  Canal  about  1,000  feet  long. 


JttL     :         - 

^^B     V      V-»  ' 

IK--         j.    -.•  ■.->■  i     -  * 

m* 

IHHBtSKBIL"  '  j               *  TmH^BBV 

.     ■  -     %t                     -«».'    "                 it- 

•=-              "^  ":5f^f*5                       *•*    **  —  -                             - ^~ 

IWHhh*  ""'■"".■ 

s-^   ... 

_ — 

;-    *                                     _.*v"*"> 

Miraflores  dike  before  the  blast  of  August  31,  1913. 


The  dynamite  blast  at  Miraflores  dike  on  August  31,  1913. 


[  323  J 


Views  showing  the  water  rushing  into  the  channel  after  the  dike  was  blown  up.  1.  Man 
making  a  trench  to  let  the  first  water  in.  2.  The  opening  as  it  appeared  30  minutes  later.  3.  The 
dike  crumbled  away  under  the  mighty  rush  of  water.     4.  The  opening  momentarily  widens. 


:524 


While  the  water  was  surging  into  the  pit,  the  phenomenon  of  the  tide  being  held  stationary 
for  three-quarters  of  an  hour  was  observed  at  Balboa  eight  miles  away.  1.  The  rush  of  water 
continues.  2.  The  opening  about  one  hour  after  the  water  first  went  through.  3.  A  steel  cable 
hung  across  the  fall,  which  the  rush  of  water  thrashed  back  and  forth.    4.  The  pit  is  gradually  filling. 


[325] 


Letting  water  through  Gamboa  Dike  into  Culebra  Cut.  Two  of  the  24-inch  pipes  are  shown 
in  this  picture.  Six  of  tnese  pipes  were  opened  ten  days  before  the  Dike  was  blown  up,  allowing 
the  Cut  to  become  partly  filled,  so  there  would  not  be  such  a  rush  of  water  when  the  Dike 
was  destroyed. 


Gamboa  Dike  before  it  was  dynamited 

[  .12(5  ] 


'^^^Pl                                   j^ 

■■ 

_^^^M       ^^^fe      <L 

Blast  that  destroyed  Gamboa  Dike  on  October  10,  1913.    The  Cut  had  been  filled  to  within  a  few- 
feet  of  the  level  of  the  lake  before  the  Dike  was  blown  up. 


Water  from  Gatun  Lake  flowing  into  the  Cut  through  the  opening  in  the  dike  after  the  explosion. 
The  first  boat  to  pass  into  the  Cut  from  the  lake  was  a  canoe  containing  two  men. 

[327] 


Lake  entrance  to  Gatun  Locks  on  morning  of  lockage,  looking  south. 


Lake  entrance  to  Gatun  Locks  on  morning  of  lockage,  looking  north.     Footwalks  with 
handrails  on  each  side  have  been  placed  on  top  of  all  the  lock  gates. 

[  328  1 


Turning  water  into  the  lock  chamber  through  culvert  openings  in  the  floor — partial  flow. 


Turning  water  into  the  lock  chamber  through  culvert  openings  in  the  floor — maximum  flow. 

[3291 


r 


Water  in  the  lower  lock  and  sea  level  channel  equalized.  Opening  the  lower  guard  gate. 


Tug  Gatun  moving  up  the  approach  channel  toward  the  lower  lock. 

f  330  I 


Tug  comes  to  a  stop  alongside  the  center  wall  in  the  lower  lock  chamber. 


Gate  is  closed  preparatory  to  filling  the  lock  for  the  lift  to  the  middle  chamber. 

[  331  I 


Tugs,  dredges   and  barges  entering  the  lower  lock  from  the  sea  channel. 


Closing  the  lower  lock  operating  gate. 

[  332  | 


Assembling  the  various  craft  inside  the  middle  lock.     Colonel  Goethals  on  the  lock  wall 

to  the  right  with  his  back  turned. 


Tug  Empire,  with  tow,  passing  out  into  Gatun  Lake.  Dark  spots  on  the  surface  of  the  lake 
are  floating  islands,  masses  of  swamp  vegetation  lossened  by  the  lake  rise,  and  blown  across  the 
lake  by  the  wind. 

I  333  I 


Waiting  for  the  Lock  to  fill. 


The  pipe  on  the  barges  was  part  of  the  outfit  of  dredge  No.  85, 
for  use  at  Cucaracha  slide. 


..gdfc. 

i^^m 

'• 

Wk&*  il-'i'&iL^m^^^m^k* 

js&sys^j 

W-i  ^SfflffilflHi 

1 

P*V  Bjl 

•   - 

i 

The  Lock  filled.     Ready  to  pass  out  into  the  Culebra  Cut  channel. 

[  334  ] 


Close  view  of  Cucaracha  slide.  The  lagoon  in  the  foreground  was  formed  by  another  part  of 
the  slide  blocking  the  Canal  about  where  the  picture  ends.  In  the  distance  may  be  seen  two  points 
projecting  into  the  Canal.  These  were  the  toes  of  the  slides  on  the  east  and  west  banks  at  Culebra, 
which  moved  some  distance  after  water  was  admitted  to  the  Cut. 


Closer  view  of  trenching  operations  at  the  slide.  Workmen  engaged  in  trying  to  keep  a  trench 
open  in  the  spongy  mass  to  let  the  water  from  filled  section  through.  This  proved  to  be  a  most 
discouraging  task,  for  the  material  moved  about  as  fast  as  dug  out.  Two  workmen  were  drowned 
while  these  operations  were  in  progress. 

[335] 


THE  MONUMENTAL  TASK  COMPLETED 

|NE  hundred  million  citizens  of  the  United  States  of  America  are 
justified  in  their  display  of  pride  over  the  consummation  of  the 
greatest  engineering  task  ever  assigned  to  man — the  construction  of 
the  Panama  Canal.  Not  alone  have  the  people  of  our  country 
manifold  reasons  for  rejoicing  at  the  achievement  so  conspicuously  won,  but 
the  inhabitants  of  the  world  likewise  have  a  living  interest  in  the  accomplish- 
ment of  an  undertaking  which  has  united  into  a  commercial  pathway  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  Oceans. 

Mankind's  dream  of  the  ages  has  now  become  a  reality,  and  the  grateful 
homage  of  appreciation  resounds  with  praises  in  recognition  of  the  wonderful 
results  which  our  skilled  artisans  achieved  and  which  our  generous  resources 
made  possible.  No  one  can  be  indifferent  to  this  universal  cause  for  satis- 
faction, since  the  success  obtained  on  the  Isthmus  is  something  which  will  benefit 
the  entire  human  race. 

Such  wars  as  have  engaged  the  activities  of  American  citizens,  from 
colonial  days  to  the  present,  have  been  waged  for  principle,  but  the  warfare  of 
our  yeomanry  on  the  Isthmus  was  primarily  waged  against  disease,  in  order 
that  the  test  of  endurance  might  be  more  even-handed;  secondarily  the  forces 
and  impediments  of  nature  were  combated,  and  a  victory  was  won  in  both 
particulars  that  has  astonished  the  thoughtful  everywhere.  In  these  features 
there  can  be  no  controversy  concerning  the  fact  that  in  the  completion  of  the 
undertaking  there  is  glory  enough  for  all. 

In  an  effort  of  such  transcendent  and  far-reaching  consequence  to  the 
commerce  of  the  world  as  is  the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal,  it  is  ap- 
propriate that  we  should  in  every  way  recognize  the  essential  elements  and 
factors  that  have  contributed  to  the  success  leading  to  the  final  chapter.  In  a 
sentence  these  have  been  embraced  in  the  resourcefulness  of  our  citizenship — 
one  hundred  million  people  of  a  Republic,  who  willingly  taxed  themselves  that 
the  oceans  which  bounded  their  nation  might  be  made  one.  This  has  now  been 
done,  and  the  willing  co-operation  and  intelligent  display  of  statesmanship 
by  both  houses  of  Congress,  as  well  as  the  efforts  of  our  high-minded  Executives, 
who  have  been  enthusiastic  supporters  of  the  gigantic  work,  these  should  not 
for  a  moment  be  allowed  to  fade  from  view,  but  should  become  signposts  in 
that  harmony  of  rejoicing  which  will  animate  our  countrymen  and  stimulate 
effort  to  overcome  obstacles  while  time  endures.  Briefly  this  is  one  of  the 
inviting  texts  associated  with  the  proposition  which  cannot  be  too  highly 
extolled,  nor  a  feature  in  which  the  superlative  of  language  is  not  needed  to 
fittingly  outline  the  great  deed  now  finished. 

The  American  people  owe  to  the  courageous  craftsmen  engaged  on  the 
Isthmus,  those  who  rendered  such  splendid  service  to  our  country,  a  debt  that 
is  inextinguishable,  and  to  the  peerless  genius,  Colonel  George  W.  Goethals, 
there  will  always  be  reserved  a  niche  in  the  Hall  of  Fame  in  which  will  be 
treasured  lofty  appreciation  of  his  masterfulness  as  an  engineer  and  his  at- 
tractive personality  as  a  man  altogether  too  modest  to  boast  of  his  accomplish- 
ments, he  allowing  the  herculean  effort  to  acclaim  the  tribute  of  that  greatness 


CTHE,  JvNNp    piVIDED— ^rBEr  WOGLkD,  TT1 

which  is  his  just  due.  His  splendid  capability,  always  in  evidence,  as  time  pro- 
ceeds will  grow  brighter,  while  the  cordial  commendation  of  his  countrymen 
will  be  his  rich  reward  during  life. 

It  seems  beyond  the  realm  of  doubt  that  a  nation  which  displayed  the 
marvelous  resources  and  manifested  the  almost  illimitable  power  which  for 
years  were  in  evidence  in  the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal  will  be  short- 
sighted either  in  enterprise  or  lacking  in  initiative  or  invention  in  utilizing  the 
pathway  between  the  oceans,  which  now  has  been  so  adequately  provided. 
Thus  we  may  be  permitted  at  the  closing  stage  of  our  volume  to  hazard  the 
prediction  that  American  enterprise  and  American  ambition  will  fulfill  every 
responsibility  and  meet  every  expectation  in  utilizing  the  opportunity  which 
the  future  may  present  in  availing  ourselves  of  the  advantages  at  hand. 

In  order  to  be  able  to  grasp  the  possibilities  of  the  trade  which  in  the  near 
future  will  be  carried  through  the  Panama  Canal,  there  should  be  no  subject 
more  entertaining  nor  one  more  profitable  that  can  engage  the  attention  of  the 
business  associations  of  the  country  than  to  obtain  a  knowledge  of  the  topic 
that  is  actively  stirring  the  energies  of  other  nations.  Monuments  of  ruins  of 
old  systems  and  ancient  methods  may  be  observed  on  every  hand  on  the 
Isthmus,  but  when  the  magic  wand  of  American  courage  was  waved  over  the 
scene  the -artisans  of  our  country  were  equal  to  every  call;  obstacles  disappeared 
and  victory  came  into  view  to  permanently  reside  as  a  sentinel  proclaiming 
their  glory.  Our  people  will  surely  not  be  slow  to  seize  the  fruits  of  the  victory 
now  so  completely  won. 

In  connection  with  the  many  gratifying  words  inseparably  associated  with 
the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal  it  is  especially  fitting  to  note  the  complete 
absence  of  suspicion  and  freedom  from  both  scandal  and  graft  from  which 
those  prosecuting  the  work  from  the  beginning  to  the  completion  of  the 
absorbing  task  were  relieved.  In  addition  there  has  been  but  little  to  discourage 
or  dishearten,  from  the  standpoint  of  adverse  criticism,  the  workmen  who 
finally  achieved  the  unexampled  success,  since  the  frankest  manner  was 
observed  in  everything  pertaining  to  the  enterprise,  and  this  policy  has  been  kept 
prominently  before  the  public.  Daylight  has  been  a  factor  in  the  accomplish- 
ment of  the  greatest  deeds  in  all  history  and  candor  and  honest  motives  have 
always  been  within  the  gaze  and  was  revealed  to  any  who  sought  information 
concerning  the  construction  work  in  hand.  In  this  particular  the  Panama 
Canal  will  long  be  a  worthy  example  of  sincerity  and  open-mindedness. 

The  monumental  task  is  over,  and  the  enterprise  of  the  American  people 
will  doubtless  be  searching  for  new  fields  to  conquer,  new  obstacles  to  overcome, 
but  the  eloquent  theme  of  the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal  will  forever 
stand  out  in  the  chronicles  of  the  world  as  a  marvelous  undertaking,  executed  in 
a  manner  to  excite  emulation  and  compel  the  admiration  of  those  capable  of  ap- 
preciating the  great  things  of  this  world. 

No  work  of  consequence  is  ever  brought  to  completion  without  effort,  nor 
is  anything  of  value  secured  without  labor  and  sacrifice.  The  tremendous 
undertaking  on  the  Isthmus  was  colossal  in  many  ways,  involving  danger, 
disease,  anxiety  and  uncertainty,  as  well  as  millions  upon  millions  in  expendi- 
ture. These  problems  have  been  encountered  and  have  all  been  mastered  by 
superb  skill,  indomitable  persistence  and  heroic  courage.  In  a  word,  nothing 
more  can  be  said,  and,  in  this  connection,  as  a  final  leave-taking  to  the  reader, 
nothing  more  is  necessary  to  say. 


Tv\SL-D    DIVIDED— cTfHB  WOB^J[JHITESD 

FIRST  HALF  YEAR  OF  CANAL  OPERATION. 

The  first  six  months  of  commercial  oper-  Official  reports  show  that  slightly  over 

ation  of  the  Panama  Canal  were  completed  41  per  cent  of  the  cargo  handled  was  in 

at  the  close  of  business  on  February  14,  movement   between    ports   of   the   United 

1915,  the  canal  having  been  opened  to  com-  States,  in  what  is  classified  as  United  States 

mercial  traffic  on  August  15,  1914.  coastwise  trade.     Over  21  per  cent  of  all 

Four   hundred    and    ninety-six    vessels,  the  cargo  was  in  movement  between  the 

other  than  canal  vessels  and  launches,  etc.,  Pacific  coast  of  North  America,  principally 

which  are  not  counted,  passed  through  the  the  United  States,  and   Europe ;  and  ap- 

canal  during  the  period.     They  carried  a  proximately  an  equal  proportion    (21  per 

total  of  2,367,244  tons  of  cargo.    Their  dis-  cent)  moved  on  the  route  between  the  west 

tribution  over  the  most  important  routes  coast  of  South  America  and  the  seaports 

followed  by  vessels  using  the  canal  during  on   the   Atlantic   seaboard   of  the   United 

this  time  is  summarized  herewith :  States  and  Europe.     Traffic  between  the 

No.        Cargo  Atlantic     seaboard     and     the     Far     East 

,                      Route                    vessels    tonnage  amounted  to  over  12  per  cent  of  the  whole. 

U.  S.  coastwise,  eastbound 97        499,439  All    together,    the    foregoing    routes   were 

U    S.  coastwise,  westbound 109         493,272  d    f        th      transit    of    all    but    approxi- 

U.  S.  Pacific  coast  to  Europe...        6b         444,855  ,                        -                    „                      .       «.      n 

Europe  to  U.  S.  Pacific  coast....       16         59,516  mately  two  and  one-half  per  cent  of  all 

South  America  to  U.  S.  and  Eu-  cargo  sent  through  the  canal. 

rope    69         378,386 

U.  S.  and  Europe  to  South  Amer-  TOLLS. 

ica 31         128,922 

U.  S.  Atlantic  coast  to  Far  East.      48        287,782  The  tolls  levied  during  the  six  months 

Far  East  to  U.  S.  Atlantic  coast.        2          14,500  period  amounted  to  $2,126,832.00.    Adding 

Miscellaneous    routings    13            60,572  tQ   thig  the  #11,610.69  of  tolls  collected  On 

Vessels  without  cargo 45          ,                               ,  '     .            a   i  r     j-i.      iiii 

8 barges  prior  to  August  15,  the  total  levy 

Totals   496     2,367,244  to  February  15,  1915,  was  $2,138,442.69. 


The  United  States  War  Department  Steamship  Ancon  was  the  first  steamship  to  make 
the  passage  through  the  Panama  Canal— on  August  15,  1914.  Shown  here  in  a  filled  lock  on 
a  level  with  Miraflores  lake. 

[  338  ] 


INTERESTING   FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 

The  general  route  of  the  Canal  i-  from  Northwest  (<■  South- 
east or  Vice  versa;  | hi-  Atlantic  entrance  kirn;  BSJ  mil.  -  We.t 

of  iln  Pacific  entrance. 

Pint  Gt I  hr-.k-n  l.v  French  Jan    i,  1880 

Active  work  started  l.v  French  Jon.  20.  ihm 

Excavation  bj  French  (cubic  yards)  78,140,900 
Excavation  bj   French,  useful  to  present  Canal 

(cubic  yurds}  28,608,000 

Amount  sjirntl.y  French  8200,000,000 

United  State)  paid  the  French  <  otupanj  f"r  their 

rights  ami  property  $40,000,000 

I'mld    States    ;„.|iiir.,l    I  li.     '    ,ui., I    Znr.i     fn.n,    llic 

Republic  of  Pamnim  k   in  ,,t\  Feb   £3,1904 

[.'niled  Stales  |wud  Panama  fur  (mud  Zone  Slll.lHHI.OOO 

Canal  Zone  area  [square  miles),  about  43H 

1   nit.-. I  -I  ate-  1..IV-.  n  nt:, I  I.,  tit.    llc|,Lll,li<  of  Paluiluu. 

f.ir  III,    <   .in., I  /..in  .   I.,-, n. mi!.-   I'M';     ,-■ i  S  J., 1 1, 1 II II I 

Work  begun  '■■  1  nited  States  May  I.  1804 

Ftrsl  boat  thro    -nth*  1  ocka  Sep!    10,  191  I 

(;.ni.l....i  I  >ik.     I..-1    irti!..  i.,ll,;irn.T.h|l.«,1ij|.  ".I    10.1913 

!);,(,■  of  (Kin  ,.,!   *  l|.  mi,-  Jail      I.    tfilfi 

Length  of  Canal  from  ilcep  water  to  deep  water  (miles)  60 

Lentil  from  short-line  to  shore-line    null-  HI 

T f  transit  through  .- plci.sl  <  ..mil    1 a)     L0  to  it 

Time  of  ji.i--  i-'    thn.UL'li    I  ....  k-   il r-i  9 

Bottom     Nvi.Ull    ,.f    channel.     InaMmillll     I  fell  1,1111(1 

Bottom  width  of  chai I,  minimum,  (  ulebraf  ul  (feet)      800 

Locks,  in   iMiirs    ......  18 

I..-U    n,al,lc    len-tli    ,f.-<  ti  1. 

Locks,  usable  width  ifi-.ii  110 
Gatun  Dam,  one  mid  one-half  miles  loni;,  <>nr  half 
mile  wide  at   base.     Material   used   in   eon 

StrUCtiolltok.ii  I  r.  .in  I  In  tin,.,  I    ,   it,,,   i.u.l-  .' I  iinii.n,  11 1 

Gatun  I-iik,-.  iir.-;i     ..|ii.ir,    miles)  104 

Gatun  Lake,  i  bannel  depth    teet  8fi  to  U 

Gut  mi  1-akc.  normal  Mirfn.e  Irv.-I  ak.ve  -ea  I.  ,d     fed 

<  ul.  bra  Cut,  i  bannel  depth    Feet  >  15 

Excavation  l.v  Americans  to  Nov    I.  1913 

(cubic  yards) U8.0M  110 

1\.    ...ili'ii,    fur   entire    I   anal.    I.i.l    i  -I  iin.it.-    in.iil.- 

Ji.lv  1,  1913  (cubic  yards),      .  '■'.  »3,000 

i  ..i,,,,!, ,  total  For  <  anal   (cubic  rant     ul 5,000,000 

Weight  i if M  ill ili:  yar.l  .  >f  .- rrtc  ur.arlli   ,  lotisi  llboul        I  | 

Ariifinil   of  oil  iisi.il  per  month  (barrels).  

I  ,i-i  of  same  (per  barrel)  81.10 

A mil  oE  coal  used  per  month    tons)         .  .  i,000 

Cost   of  same,   ilclivereil  in   lirc-lne,      |-l    I -ollll 

(,,.i    ,,f   (  „ul,   ...tinml.-d   i.ii.il  8375, 00 

KlJI   H'MINT-    Neon      -li.^'l-.      1**1        I." Il-'-       <    anal 

4.57*.  Panama  Itmlr I    I.V.'I,  .Irill-  a.1. I .  earth   ,|.t.    I'kr- 

80;  Ira,  k  shifters  9;  unloaden  90;  pile  drivers  10;  dredges 

80;   .nines    t'J;    Wrecking   cram-.     .' .    rock    l.rcaka-r    I      tn- 

boats  12.  tow  kiat   I.  I"!   boar,   -'.  house  kul-  :t.  il.i|-l. 

li;  crime  knit  1.  harfics,  lighters  ami   >.<m.Hi,  lame  Im- 

89;    ilrill    boats   2     II. aim-    J.  rank-    .'     -I.- ■ liloher    1 

First   Panama    Uailroa.l  e ,1,-tcil  Jan.  21,   IS5.) 

Tin;  I'ar lii  Ui.ilroiel  i.  llie  ki-iot  dmrt  line  olid 

the  -InTlest  trim-,  ontiucnlal  line  in  lite  world. 

Uel.-l.Iion   , oi, ii.lil,. I    Ma.    -'",,    I'll  ■.   length. 

17  ii   miles'  ,,-i  88*984,888  is 

(ana!  ami  Panama  ltailr.,.,.1  f.,n  e  at  work,  Man  h.  1913.44.733 
(  m,  ,1  ami  Panama  liaili,,;,,!  f,.n  ,    at  work,  March, 

I'.i',    Vmericans  M87 

Cosl  oi  the  work  of  the  Department  of  Sanitation 

toJulj  l-  1013  H8.8fiO.W4.93 

Average  death  rate aiiiniur.-mj.hive,  for  y.arol  11*1  J, 

disease  only     pel    1,000  ..     8.S7 

Population  of  Panama  '   i!\.  I  ■,l.,i,  arnH    oial  Zi.nc, 

1913.   about  W<W?0 

Population    of     Panama    Illy,    akitit  »  

Population  ,,f  C.Wi.  kI 1 

ItcuuUi,    of  Panama,   ana   '-|iiaie  uille.i, I  3J.IKMI 

Tide  on  Pacifie  side  (feet)  ■  "" 

Tnle  on   Atlantii    si.le  .  fe.'l  I  ■  ■ -f  j 

Avemae   rainfall   at   <  ..I ..In-  ^ 

\\,r  1  '■    rainfall   at   Pamima      in,  In-- 

Avenii,'.-   liiilifall   at    Polio  Hello  ■  mi  lies  I  ''}'.'„ 

Mavim rainfall  of  word  for  I!  minute-  i  in,  lies) i-48 

Muxi 11.  rainfall  of  r.-onl  for  1   I r  undiesi       5*H> 

Maviimmi  rainfall  of  reeon.1  for  24  hours  <mt  Ilea) 10.86 

Maximum  temperature  of  record  f  degrees  fahr.) 90s 


PRONOUNCING  GAZETTEER  OF  THE  GEOGRAPHICAL  NAMES 

MOST  FREQUENTLY  HEARD  IN  THE  CANAL  ZONE  AND 

PANAMA,  TOGETHER  WITH  THEIR  APPLICATION, 

AND  ALSO  ETYMOLOGY,  WHERE  KNOWN 


Agua  Clara  (a-gwa  kla'ra),  meaning  clear 
water.  Name  applied  to  several  streams  on  the 
Isthmus  on  account  of  the  clearness  of  their 
waters.  Name  of  tributary  of  Gatun  River,  and 
also  of  the  Zone  waterworks  at  Gatun  village. 

Aguadulce  (a-gwa-dool'sy),  meaning  sweet 
water.  Name  applied  to  several  streams  and 
localities  on  the  Isthmus,  on  account  of  the 
potability  of  the  water.  Name  of  creek  that 
supplies  Toro  Point  settlement  with  water.  Also 
name  of  thriving  port  on  west  coast  in  Code 
province. 

Agua  Fria  (a-gwa  free'a),  meaning  cool  run- 
ning water.     Several  streams  bear  this  name. 

Agua  Salud  (ii-gwii  sii-lood').  Refers  to  a 
number  of  small  streams  whose  waters  are 
classed  as  health-giving,  or  at  least  drinkable. 
Name  of  stream  in  the  Gatun  Lake  area. 

Ahorca  Lagarto  (ii-or'-ka  la-gar'to),  meaning 
literally  "hanging  lizard,"  probably  inspired 
from  the  number  of  large  lizards  found  on  the 
limbs  of  trees  in  this  locality.  Former  station 
on  the  old  line  of  the  Panama  railroad  12.64 
miles  from  Colon.  Now  inundated  by  Gatun 
Lake. 

Alhajuela  (a-la-wala),  meaning  "little 
jewel."  Place  on  the  Chagres  River  11  miles 
from  Gamboa,  where  a  gaging  station  is  main- 
tained by  the  I.  C.  C. 

Almirante  (al-mee-ran'tee),  meaning  "ad- 
miral." Name  of  town  founded  by  the  United 
Fruit  Company  in  Bocas  del  Toro  province,  as 
its  permanent  headquarters.  Name  also  of  bay 
in  the  same  locality,  from  the  title  given  Colum- 
bus, who  discovered  it. 

Alto  Obispo  (alto  5-bees'p6),  meaning  "up- 
per bishop."  Called  by  the  French  "  Haut 
Obispo."  Name  of  native  village  near  Bas 
Obispo  on  the  old  line  of  the  P.  R.  R.  Aban- 
doned on  account  of  Gatun  Lake. 

Ancon  (an-kone'),  meaning  "open  bay,  or 
roadstead."  Name  applied  to  Ancon  Hill,  over- 
looking Panama  and  Panama  Bay,  sometimes 
also  called  "  Cerro  de  los  Bucaneros"  (Hill  of 
the  Buccaneers'),  from  the  tradition  that  Mor- 
gan and  his  man  first  saw  Panama  from  that 
height.  Name  also  of  the  American  settlement 
at  the  foot  of  the  hill. 

Arraijan  (arr-ii-ee-hau'),  supposed  to  be  from 
Spanish  "arraigado, "  place  to  settle  down. 
Name  of  Panamanian  village  just  outside  the 
Zone  boundary  line  west  of  Empire.  Noted  for 
its  orange  grove. 

Barbacoas  (bar-ba-ko'as),  supposed  to  be 
from  Spanish  "barbacoa, "  barbecue.  Name  of 
locality  on  old  line  of  the  P.  R.  R.,  about  24  miles 
from  Colon.  Also  applied  to  the  iron  girder 
bridge  which  formerly  spanned  the  Chagres 
River    at    that   point. 

Bas  Obispo  (baa  6-bees'po),  meaning  "lower 
bishop,"    in    contradistinction    to    Alto    Obispo. 


American  settlement  on  old  line  of  the  P.  R.  R., 
16  miles  from  Panama.  Site  of  the  United 
States  Marine  Camp  (Camp  Elliott)  for  many 
years.     Town  will  be  abandoned. 

Bayano  (ba-ya'no).  Origin  of  name  unde- 
termined. Name  of  one  of  the  large  rivers  of 
the  Isthmus,  emptying  into  Panama  Bay,  some- 
times called  Rio  Chepo,  famed  for  its  alligator 
haunts.  Also  name  of  tribe  of  Indians  that 
dwell  along  the  upper  course  of  the  stream. 

Bocas  del  Toro  (b5'kas  del  to'ro),  meaning 
"mouth  of  the  bull."  Name  of  city  and  prov- 
ince developed  by  the  banana  industry,  which  is 
wholly  in  the  hands  of  the  United  Fruit  Com- 
pany. Annual  shipments  from  this  locality  now 
amount  to  about  7,000,000  bunches. 

Bohio  Soldado  (boo-ee'o  sole-diid'o),  meaning 
"soldier's  home."  Name  of  a  once  thriving 
village  in  the  Canal  Zone,  15  miles  from  Colon. 
Site  now  covered  by  Gatun  Lake.  Was  the  larg- 
est village  in  the  Zone  when  the  Americans 
acquired  the  strip  in  1904. 

Boqueron  (bo-kay-rone'),  meaning  "wide 
opening."  A  tributary  of  the  Rio  Pequeni,  ris- 
ing in  the  mountains  near  Porto  Bello.  Also 
a  village  in  Chiriqui  province. 

Boquete  (bo-kay'tay).  meaning  "A  gap,  or 
narrow  entrance."  A  rich  valley  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Chiriqui  province,  inhabited  by  a  for- 
eign colony  engaged  in  the  growing  of  coffee. 
Many  American  employes  have  been  accustomed 
to  spend  their  vacations  there. 

Buenavista  (bwa-na-vees'ta),  meaning  "good 
view."  The  name  of  several  localities  on  the 
Isthmus.  Formerly,  a  hamlet  on  the  P.  R.  R.,  in 
the  Gatun  Lake  area. 


Caimito  (ka-e-mee'toj.  Name  of  an  Isthmian 
vegetable.  Also  of  a  small  stream  in  the  Canal 
Zone,  and  of  a  station  on  the  new  line  of  the 
P.  R.  R.,  26  miles  from  Colon. 

Caldera  (kal-day'ra),  meaning  "Caldron." 
Name  of  a  river,  village  and  hot  springs  in  the 
province  of  Chiriqui. 

Calobre  (ka-16'bray).  From  the  Spanish  word 
"Calor,"  heat.  Name  of  village  in  Veraguas 
province,  near  which  are  three  hot  springs. 

Camacho  (ka-ma'cho).  Origin  of  word  unde- 
termined. Name  of  stream  in  the  Canal  Zone. 
Also  applied  to  Zone  waterworks  at  Empire. 

Cana  (ka'na),  or  Santa  Cruz  de  Cana  (siin'ta 
kroos  day  ka'na).  Name  of  a  settlement  in  the 
Darien  region,  headquarters  of  the  Darien  Gold 
Mining  Company,  Ltd. 

Cascajal  (kiis-ka-hiil'),  meaning  place  full  of 
gravel  or  pebbles.  River,  emptying  into  the  bay 
at  Porto  Bello. 

Cerro  Grande  (cher-ro  gran'de),  meaning  big 
hill.  Spanish  name  of  Balboa  Hill,  the  highest 
point  in  the  Canal  Zone,  over  1,000  feet,  situ- 
ated a  few  miles  from  the  old  site  of  Gorgona. 


[339 


CfTiES  Tv\N-P  .  DIVIDED  ^^THB  WOBLL>D>  TTKITED 


Chagres  (chag'ress).  Origin  of  word  undeter- 
mined. Principal  feeder  of  Gatun  Lake.  See 
description  in  text  of  the  book  under  "Gatun 
Lake." 

Chame  (cham'a),  meaning  place  of  barter  or 
trade.  Town  on  the  west  coast  in  Panama  prov- 
ince. Also  name  of  a  peninsula  in  the  same 
locality,  at  the  end  of  which,  called  Punta 
Chame,  was  obtained  all  of  the  sand  used  in  the 
construction  of  the  Pacific  Locks  of  the  Canal. 

Chitre  (chee-tray').  Most  rapidly  growing 
small  town  on  the  west  coast,  in  Los  Santos 
province.  Center  of  the  fruit-shipping  inter- 
ests for  the  Panama  market. 

Chorrera  (cho-ray'ra),  meaning  waterfall.  Na- 
tive village  in  Panama  province  a  little  west 
of  the  Zone  boundary.  Chorrera  Falls,  four 
miles  from  the  village,  are  quite  picturesque. 

Chiriqui  (chee-ree-kee')'.  Indian  word.  Prov- 
ince in  western  Panama,  the  richest,  from  an 
agricultural  standpoint,  in  the  republic.  Horses 
and  cattle  are  raised,  and  coffee,  tobacco  and 
rice  are  grown.  Also  name  of  an  extinct  vol- 
cano in  the  same  province,  the  highest  peak  in 
the  country,  11,500  feet.  Also  name  of  the  na- 
tional prison  in  Panama  City. 

Code  (ko-klay').  Indian  word.  Name  of  Pan- 
ama's smallest  province;  also  of  a  tribe  of  In- 
dians that  inhabit  the  mountains  of  this  prov- 
ince. Several  rivers,  one  of  size,  bear  this 
name. 

Cocoli  (ko-k5-lee').  Formerly  a  lake  in  the 
Canal  Zone,  used  as  one  of  the  reservoirs  for 
the  Panama  water  supply,  now  a  part  of  Mira- 
flores  Lake.  Also  the  name  of  the  stream  that 
fed  the  lake. 

Coiba,  or  Quibdo  (ko-ee'ba,  or  keeb'do). 
Largest  island  in  Panamanian  waters,  situated 
off  the  coast  of  the  Province  of  Veraguas.  The 
Panama  Government  plans  to  establish  the  na- 
tional prison  on  this  island. 

Colon  (ko-lone',  pronounced  like  the  word 
Cologne).  City  at  the  Atlantic  entrance  of  the 
Canal,  second  in  size  in  the  republic,  and  capital 
of  Colon  Province.  Formerly  called  Aspinwall, 
but  the  Colombian  Government  refused  to  recog- 
nize the  name,  and  it  was  changed  to  Colon,  the 
Spanish  for  Columbus. 

Corozal  (ko-ro-sal').  Said  to  be  the  name  of 
a  plant  growth.  American  settlement  three 
miles  from  Panama,  one  of  the  first  to  be  estab- 
lished. In  moving  Gorgona,  most  of  the  Amer- 
ican type  quarters  were  transferred  to  this  place. 

Cristobal  (krees-to'bal).  Spanish  for  the  first 
name  of  Columbus.  American  settlement  oppo- 
site Colon.  Contains  docks  and  the  varied  in- 
dustries of  the  commissary  department  of  the 
P.  E.  E. 

Cruces  (kroo'sase),  meaning  a  crossing.  An- 
cient town  on  the  Chagres  Eiver,  a  few  miles 
above  Gamboa.  Important  stopping  point  on 
the  overland  trail  in  the  early  days.  Now  aban- 
doned on  account  of  the  rise  of  Gatun  Lake. 

Cucaracha  (koo-ka-ra'cha),  meaning  cock- 
roach. Name  of  former  labor  settlement  on  the 
banks  of  the  canal,  near  Paraiso.  Also  name  of 
the  worst  slide  in  Culebra  Cut. 

Culebra  (koo-lay'bra),  meaning  a  serpent- 
Name  of  American  settlement  on  the  banks  of 
the  canal,  11  miles  from  Panama,  the  engineer- 
ing headquarters  of  the  T.  (!.  C.  and  residence 
of  Colonel  Goethals.  Will  ultimately  be  aban- 
doned.    Also  the  name  of  the  famous  rock  cut- 


ting through  the  Isthmian  cordillera,  nine  miles 
long. 

David  (da-veed').  Corresponding  to  the 
proper  name  David.  Capital  of  the  province  of 
Chiriqui.  Also  the  name  of  a  river  near  the 
city. 

Darien  (da-ree-ane').  Name  of  a  large  and 
only  partially  explored  territory  in  eastern  Pan- 
ama, heavily  wooded  and  rich  in  minerals.  Name 
of  a  tribe  of  Indians  that  inhabit  the  mountains 
of  this  region,  better  known  as  the  Chucunaques. 
Name  of  one  of  the  early  proposed  ship  canals 
across  the  Isthmus.  Name  of  the  high-power 
radio  station  located  near  Caimito  in  the  Canal 
Zone. 

El  Diablo  (el  dee-ii'blo),  meaning  "The 
Devil. ' '  Name  of  a  small  hill  outside  of  Corozal 
on  the  P.  E.  E.  A  few  American  type  quarters 
have  been  maintained  here. 

El  Vigia  (el  vee-hee'a),  meaning  watch  tower. 
A  point  on  the  upper  Chagres  Eiver  about  17 
miles  from  Gamboa,  where  a  river  gaging  sta- 
tion is  maintained  by  the  I.  C.  C. 

Emperador  ( em-pay -ray-dore').  The  Spanish 
name  of  Empire,  the  largest  town  in  the  Canal 
Zone,  12  miles  from  Panama.  It  contains  large 
repair  shops,  and  the  Disbursing  and  Examining 
of  Accounts'  offices.  Will  eventually  be  aban- 
doned. 

Flamenco  (flaw-miine'ko),  meaning  flamingo. 
One  of  the  group  of  fortified  islands  in  the  Bay 
of  Panama,  owned  by  the  United  States. 

Frijoles  (free-ho'les),  meaning  beans.  The  old 
town  of  Frijoles,  18.64  miles  from  Colon,  was 
abandoned  on  the  rise  of  Gatun  Lake.  The  new 
town,  located  on  the  new  main  line,  is  a  collec- 
tion of  a  few  native  houses,  20  miles  from  Colon. 
Near  here  the  Subsistence  Department  of  the 
I.  C.  C.  is  growing  fruit  to  supply  the  com- 
missaries. 

Gamboa  (gam-bo'a),  meaning  a  kind  of  quince. 
Point  on  the  new  line  of  the  P.  E.  E.,  where  the 
Chagres  Eiver  is  crossed  by  an  iron  bridge. 
Also  water  gaging  station  at  this  point.  Name 
of  the  dike  which  was  blown  up  October  10, 
1913,  to  fill  Culebra  Cut. 

Garachine  (ga-ra-chee-nay').  Meaning  of  word 
unknown.  Cape  on  San  Miguel  Bay,  marking 
the  eastern  limit  of  the  Bay  of  Panama. 

Gatun  (ga-toon').  Name  possibly  derived 
from  Spanish  word  gatuna,  meaning  cat-like,  or 
feline,  or  gatunero,  a  seller  of  smuggled  meat, 
more  probably  the  latter.  Name  very  common 
in  the  Canal  Zone,  applied  to  river,  American 
settlement  at  Gatun  Locks,  the  locks,  spillway, 
and  dam,  to  one  or  two  native  villages,  and  to 
the  settlement  at  New  Gatun,  near  the  Amer- 
ican town;  also  to  Gatun  Lake. 

Gorgona  (gor-go'na),  meaning,  according  to 
the  best  definition,  a  whirlpool,  or  place  of 
swirling  water.  A  town  that  formerly  existed 
on  the  banks  of  the  Chagres  Eiver,  28  miles 
from  Colon.  Abandoned  in  August,  1913,  on  ac- 
count of  Gatun  Lake.  Was  an  important  place 
in  both  French  and  American  canal  times.  Loca- 
tion of  the  largest  shops  in  the  canal  service 
prior  to  their  removal. 

Indio  (een'dee-o),  meaning  Indian.  One  of  the 
chief  tributaries  of  the  Chagres  Eiver,  and  the 
name  of  several  other  streams  in  the  republic. 


f  340  1 


JiAKB^JLiyiPED.r^-'grHE^  WQEyfi  TINslTED 


Juan  Mina  (hoo-an  mee'na),  meaning  .lohn 
Mine.  Small  settlement  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Chilibre  River  on  the  Chagres. 

Las  Cascadas  (las  kiis-ka'das),  meaning  "The 
Cascades."  American  settlement  on  the  old 
line  of  the  P.  R.  R.,  15  miles  from  Panama,  the 
transportation  headquarters  of  the  Central  Di- 
vision for  several  years.     Will  be  abandoned. 

Los  Santos  (los  san'toce),  meaning  "The 
Saints."  Name  of  province  in  southwestern 
Panama,  and  also  of  its  capital,  La  Villa  de  Los 
Santos,  "The  Village  of  the  Saints."  Town 
was  formerly  important,  but  has  been  distanced 
by  Chitre,  its  port.  This  province  was  the  cen- 
ter of  the  earthquake  shocks  in  October,  1013. 

Majagual  (ma-ha-gwal').  From  Spanish  ma- 
jagua,  a  tree  of  the  linden  variety.  Small  na- 
tive town  in  the  Canal  Zone,  across  Folks  River 
from  Cristobal. 

Mamei  (ma-may'ee).  Name  of  a  native  fruit; 
also  of  a  former  settlement  in  the  Canal  Zone  on 
the  old  line  of  the  P.  R.  R.,  in  the  Gatun  Lake 
area. 

Mandingo  (man-din'go).  A  small  stream  of 
the  Canal  Zone,  which  passes  the  village  of  Bas 
Obispo  and  enters  into  Gatun  Lake. 

Mandinga  (man-din'gii).  A  bay  on  the  San 
Bias  coast  of  the  Isthmus. 

Manzanillo  (man-sa-ned'yo).  So-called  from 
the  number  of  manchineel,  or  poison  trees,  for- 
merly found  in  the  vicinity.  These  trees  exude 
a  juice,  which,  falling  on  a  person,  cause  irri- 
tating sores.  Name  of  island  on  which  the  city 
of  Colon  stands,  now  connected  with  the  main- 
land by  a  broad  fill,  so  that  it  is  an  island  no 
more.     Also  name  of  a  bay  near  Colon. 

Matachin  (ma-tii-cheen').  Probably  from  the 
Spanish  word  matar,  to  execute.  Popularly  sup- 
posed to  be  a  word  coined  from  matar,  kill,  and 
chino,  Chinaman,  on  account  of  the  alleged  exces- 
sive number  of  suicides  said  to  have  occurred 
among  the  Chinamen  at  this  point,  at  a  time  when 
Chinese  labor  was  employed  in  the  construction  of 
the  Panama  railroad.  This  word  has  caused  greater 
dispute  than  any  other  local  term.  Opponents 
to  the  above  definition  say  the  word  refers  to 
"butcher."  Name  of  a  former  town  on  the  old 
line  of  the  P.  R.  R.,  called  during  the  days  of 
the  French,  Bas  Matachin,  but  shortened  by  the 
Americans  to  Matachin.  Place  abandoned  with 
the  rise  of  Gatun   Lake. 

Mindi  (min'dee).  Origin  of  word  unknown. 
Name  of  a  river  near  Colon,  and  also  of  a  low 
range  of  hills  cut  through  by  the  Atlantic-  en- 
trance to  the  canal. 

Miraflores  (mee-ra-flo'res),  meaning  "Look  at 
the  flowers. ' '  Name  given  to  Miraflores  Locks, 
lake,  and  a  station  on  the  P.  R.  R.,  about  ■">  miles 
from  Panama.  The  town  itself  has  been  moved 
on  account  of  the  lake.  At  this  point  is  located 
the  new  Panama  waterworks.  The  only  tunnel 
on  the  line  of  the  railroad  passes  under  a  hill 
here. 

Monte  Lirio  (mon-tay  lee-ree-o).  In  English, 
Mount  Lily.  Station  on  the  new  line  of  the 
P.  R.  R.,  14  miles  from  Colon.  There  is  a  lift 
bridge  over  the  Gatun   River  at  this  point. 

Naos  (na'ose).  From  the  Spanish  word  nave, 
ship.  One  of  the  group  of  islands  in  Panama 
Bay,  owned   and   fortified  by  the  United  States. 


Connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  breakwater 
and  causeway. 

Nargana  (nar-ga/na).  Indian  village  on  the 
San  Bias  coast  of  Panama,  headquarters  of  Chief 
Charley  Robinson,  head  of  a  branch,  of  the  San 
Bias  tribe. 

Nata  (na-tii').  One  of  the  oldest  towns  on  the 
Isthmus,  situated  in  Code  Province.  Contains 
the  oldest  church  that  is  still  in  use. 

Nombre  de  Dios  (nome'bray  day  dee'ose), 
meaning  ' '  Name  of  God. ' '  One  of  the  early 
towns  of  the  Isthmus,  situated  on  the  north 
coast,  about  35  miles  east  of  Colon.  From  this 
point  was  obtained  the  greater  part  of  the  sand 
for  building  Gatun  Locks. 

Palo  Seco  (pa-16  say'ko),  meaning  "Dry 
stick."  A  point  on  the  south  coast,  a  short  dis- 
tance from  Balboa,  where  the  leper  settlement 
is  located. 

Panama  (pii-na-ma'),  meaning,  according  to 
tradition  in  the  early  Indian  tongue,  an  abun- 
dance of  fish.  Capital  and  chief  city  of  the  re- 
public, situated  on  Panama  Bay,  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Isthmus. 

Paraiso  (pii-rii-ee'so),  meaning  "Paradise." 
American  settlement  in  the  Canal  Zone,  about 
eight  miles  from  Panama,  closely  hugging  the 
banks  of  the  Canal.  Permanent  dredging  head- 
quarters will  be  here. 

Pearl  Islands  (Islas  de  las  Perlas).  A  group 
of  about  115  islands  and  islets  situated  in  Pan- 
ama Bay,  about  50  miles  from  the  port  of  Pan- 
ama. Largest  is  Rey,  8  miles  wide  and  15  long. 
Mostly  noted  for  their  pearl  fisheries. 

Penonome  (pay-nay-no-may').  Probably  from 
the  Spanish  word  penoso,  so-called  on  account  of 
the  Feast  of  the  Penitents  formerly  held  there 
by  the  mountain  Indians,  who,  on  the  principal 
day  of  the  feast,  would  flagellate  themselves  un- 
til the  blood  streamed  down.  This  ceremony  has 
recently  been  prohibited  by  the  Government  of 
Panama.  It  is  an  interesting  little  town,  the 
capital  of  Code  Province,  and  the  home  of  some 
of  Panama's  most  prominent  men. 

Pequeni  (pay-kay-nee').  One  of  the  principal 
tributaries  of  the  Chagres  River,  flowing  through 
a  rich  alluvial  country. 

Perico  (pay-ree'ko),  meaning  paroquet.  One 
of  the  group  of  islands,  four  miles  out  in  Pan- 
ama Bay,  which  the  United  States  has  purchased 
and  fortified. 

Porto  Bello,  or  Puerto  Bello  (por-to  bel-lo,  or 
pwer-to  biil'yo),  meaning  "Beautiful  port," 
name  bestowed  on  the  place  by  Columbus  on  ac- 
count of  its  magnificent  haven.  It  is  one  of  the 
oldest  towns  on  the  Isthmus,  at  one  time  the  At- 
lantic terminus  of  the  great  trans-Isthmian 
trade  route.  Small  native  town  and  ruins  still 
exist.  Across  the  bay  is  the  American  settle- 
ment established  on  account  of  the  neighboring 
rock  quarry,  from  which  the  rock  was  obtained 
for  the  concrete  in  Gatun  Locks,  as  well  as  for 
the  armor  of  the  west  breakwater  in  Colon  Har- 
bor. 

Punta  Mala  (poon'ta  ma'la),  meaning,  lit- 
erally, bad  point.  The  name  of  a  cape  and 
headland  on  the  south  coast  of  Panama,  marking 
the  westerly  limit  of  the  Bay  of  Panama.  Small 
ships  give  it  a  wide  berth. 

Rio  de  Jesus  (ree-o  day  hay'soos),  meaning, 
literally,    "River    of    Jesus."      A    picturesquely 


I  341  | 


CmB   TvAN-P  .  DIVIDED <?THB  WQ13I>D>  TT 


situated    town    in    the    Province    of    Veraguas, 
where  cheap  native  straw  hats  are  made. 

Rio  Grande  (ree-o  gran'day),  meaning  "Great 
river,"  a  name  misapplied  to  a  small  stream  in 
the  Canal  Zone  now  a  tributary  of  Miraflores 
Lake.  Also  the  name  of  a  reservoir,  and  a 
labor  settlement  in  the  Zone. 

Sabanas,  or  Las  Sabanas  (sa-bii'nas,  or  las 
sa-ba'nas).  A  part  of  the  Canal  Zone  lying 
east  of  Panama  City,  so-called  from  the  rolling 
character  of  the  ground,  resembling  rolling 
prairie.  Occupied  by  the  wealthier  citizens  of 
Panama,  who  have  their  summer  homes  here. 

Sambu  (sam-boo').  Name  of  a  valley  in  south- 
eastern Panama,  inhabited  by  a  tribe  of  Indians 
of  the  same  name. 

San  Bias  (san  bias').  A  name  given  to  all  of 
the  north  coast  of  Panama,  east  of  Santa  Isabel 
in  Colon  Province,  inhabited  by  a  tribe  of  In- 
dians of  the  same  name. 

San  Lorenzo  (san  lo-rane'zo).  St.  Lawrence. 
A  ruined  fort  at  the  mouth  of  the  Chagres.  A 
town  in  Chiriqui  Province. 

San  Miguel  (san  mee-ghel').  St.  Michael.  Bay 
on  south  coast  of  Panama,  where  Balboa  first 
discovered  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Name  of  largest 
village  in  the  Pearl  Island  Archipelago. 

San  Pablo  (san  pab'lo).  St.  Paul.  Name  of  a 
former  settlement  on  the  old  line  of  the  P.  R.  R. 
in  the  Gatun  Lake  area.  Also  of  a  large  river 
of  western  Panama  emptying  into  Montijo  Bay. 

Santiago,  or  Santiago  de  Veraguas  (siin-tee- 
ii'go,  or  san-tee-a'go  day  ver-ii'gwas).  James. 
Capital  of  the  province  of  Veraguas,  connected 
with  its  port  of  Aguadulce  by  a  modern  road. 


Tabernilla  (ta-ver-neel'ya),  meaning  "Little 
tavern."  Former  town  on  the  old  line  of  the 
P.  R.  R.  which  disappeared  with  the  rise  of 
Gatun  Lake.  Near  here  was  one  of  the  largest 
dumping   grounds  for  canal  spoil. 

Taboga  (ta-bo'gii).  Island  belonging  to  Pan- 
ama, 12  miles  out  in  Panama  Bay.  Contains 
quaint  native  village,  old  church,  I.  C.  C.  sani- 
tarium, and  an  excellent  bathing  beach.  Noted 
for  its  fruit,  especially  pineapples. 

Taboguilla  (tii-bo-ghel'ya),  meaning  "Little 
Taboga."  Island  lying  near  Taboga,  sparsely 
peopled. 

Tiburon  (tee-boo-rone').  In  English,  shark. 
A  cape  at  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  Darien  or 
Uraba,  on  the  northeast  coast  of  Panama. 

Tonosi  (to-no-see').  A  port  on  the  coast  of 
Los  Santos  Province,  near  the  center  of  the 
earthquake  disturbances  in  October,  1913. 

Trinidad  (tree-nee-dad').  The  second  largest 
feeder  of  Gatun  Lake. 

Tuyra  (too-ee'rii).  The  largest  river  in  the 
republic,  draining  the  mountain  watersheds  of 
Darien,  and  emptying  into  the  Gulf  of  San 
Miguel. 

Uraba  (u-rii-ba').  Name  given  to  the  gulf 
separating  Colombia  from  Panama  on  the  north 
coast  of  the  Isthmus,  into  which  the  Atrato 
River  empties. 

Veraguas  (ver-ii'gwas).  Ancient  Veragua,  a 
transplanted  Spanish  name.  Once  embracing  a 
large  part  of  the  territory  of  the  Isthmus,  it 
now  refers  to  the  province,  which,  in  productive- 
ness, is  second  only  to  Chiriqui. 


[342] 


WEST  DdMNdcf  SAN  DIKO  BiPOSinON 


HE  Panama-California  Exposition,  ground  for  which  was  first  broken 
for  work  July  19,  1911,  was  formally  opened  at  San  Diego,  January 
1,  1915.  Millions  of  lights  flashed  into  life  and  cast  a  daylight  radi- 
ance over  the  thronged  grounds  of  the  "Magic  City  of  the  Hill"  as 
President  Wilson,  sitting  in  his  White  House  bedroom  three  thou- 
sand miles  away,  promptly  at  3:01  a.  m.,  eastern  time,  pressed  the  button  that 
officially  opened  San  Diego's  exposition  for  the  305  days  of  1915. 

The  pleasant  climate  of  San  Diego  and  surrounding  California  makes  it 
possible  for  the  Exposition  to  run  an  entire  year  without  interruption  from  cold. 

The  formal  ceremony  of  throwing  wide  the  gates  of  the  Panama-Califor- 
nia Exposition  to  the  world  began  at  1 1 :30  a.  m.,  western  time.  Lyman  J. 
Gage,  former  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  and  now  a  resident  of  San  Diego, 
presented  Col.  D.  C.  Collier,  former  president  of  the  Exposition.  After  giv- 
ing an  account  of  the  inception  of  the  Exposition,  Colonel  Collier  made  way 
for  President  G.  Aubrey  Davison,  to  whom  were  delivered  the  plans,  the  keys, 
and  finally  the  Exposition  itself. 

Though  much  smaller  than  many  expositions  of  recent  times — it  covers 
only  614  acres  in  all — the  San  Diego  Exposition  presents  an  eye-filling  picture. 

All  the  Exposition  structures  except  those  on  the  "Isthmus,"  the  Exposi- 
tion midway,  are  of  varying  types  of  the  Spanish  colonial  school  of  architecture. 

On  passing  through  the  entrance  arches,  the  California  State  building  with 
its  cathedral-like  architecture  and  high  tower  attracts  one's  notice.  Opposite 
is  a  Roman  building  which  houses  exhibits  of  ethnology  and  archeology  from 
the  Smithsonian  Institute  at  Washington. 

Eight  other  buildings,  each  an  exact  replica  of  some  historic  palace  of 
Spain  or  Spanish  America,  with  rounded  arches  and  connecting  colonnades,  are 
to  be  found  on  the  tree-lined  prado.  These  main  Exposition  edifices  are  devoted 
to  home  economy,  arts  and  crafts,  science  and  education,  foreign  arts,  botany, 
commerce  and  industry,  varied  industries  and  food  products. 

On  the  "Isthmus"  are  located  the  amusement  concessions,  comprising  the 
largest  roller  coaster  in  the  world,  Anfalulu  Land,  the  joy  wheel,  the  centrifu- 
gal aeroplane,  and  other  novelties. 

I  343] 


PANAMA  *  CALIFORNIA 


EXPOSITION 


The  site  of  the  exposition  could  not  have  been  more  happily  chosen. 
Balboa  Park,  a  magnificent  fourteen  hundred  and  fifty  acre  tract,  lies  on  a  high 
table  land  in  the  heart  of  the  city.  To  the  western  gate  of  the  site  is  about 
fifteen  minutes'  walk  from  the  business  center.  From  any  portion  of  the  Expo- 
sition grounds,  the  visitor  enjoys  a  splendid  view  of  the  city  and  harbor. 

The  eastern  boundary  of  the  Exposition  site  is  marked  by  another  deep 
canyon,  and  the  grounds  are  bisected  here  and  there  by  small  ravines,  all  of 
which  lend  themselves  admirably  to  the  work  of  the  landscape  gardener  and  the 
exposition  engineer,  both  of  whom  are  taking  full  advantage  of  the  fact  to  en- 
hance and  beautify  the  plans  for  the  Exposition.  From  the  end  of  Cabrillo 
bridge  to  the  eastern  gateway,  stretches  the  main  thoroughfare  of  the  Exposition, 
named  the  "Prado."     Twice  in  the  distance  it  is  enlarged  by  plazas.     The  first 


Southern  California  Counties'  Building. 


of  these  is  known  as  the  Plaza  de  California,  and  the  second  almost  midway 
between  the  gates,  as  the  Plaza  de  Panama. 

At  the  eastern  gateway  the  visitor  turns  to  the  north,  to  what  is  named 
the  "Isthmus,"  along  which  are  situated  the  sites  of  the  amusement  concessions, 
many  of  which  have  already  been  allotted.  The  offering  has  been  so  great,  that 
the  Department  of  Concessions,  under  the  directorship  of  H.  O.  Davis,  assistant 
to  President  D.  C.  Collier,  has  been  compelled  in  self  defense,  long  since,  to 
resort  to  a  policy  of  elimination.  The  "Isthmus"  will  enclose,  on  its  course  to 
the  northern  gateway,  the  concessions,  the  villages  of  the  North  American 
Indian  tribes,  the  Little  Landers  farms,  the  U.  S.  Reclamation  Service,  and 
its  large  acreage  of  demonstrating  farm  lands,  and  the  outdoor  exhibits  of  the 
seven  Southern  California  Counties. 

President  D.  C.  Collier  believes  that  the  world  has  tired  of  the  antiquated 
and  obsolete  method  of  exhibiting  "products"  as  such.  He  believes  that  these 
teach  the  beholder  practically  nothing  beyond  the  fact  that  man's  transportation 

I  314  I 


PANAMA  -  CALIFORNIA 


EXPOSITION 


facilities  are  adequate  to  the  task  of  collecting-  them,  and  his  means  ample  to 
defray  the  expense;  otherwise  there  is  nothing  to  be  learned  from  such  exhibits. 
In  searching  for  a  theme  for  the  San  Diego  Exposition  which  would  teach 
the  visitor  something  worth  knowing,  and  therefore  leave  a  lasting  and  useful 
impression,  President  Collier  hit  upon  the  plan  of  presenting  a  synopsis  of 
man's  evolution  through  a  demonstration  of  the  myriad  processes  marking  the 
present  acme  of  civilization,  and  embodying  the  history  of  man.  It  was  a 
brilliant  conception,  and  its  great  merits  have  been  recognized  by  the  countries 
of  the  world,  in  that  a  great  many  more  than  were  expected  to  do  so,  have 
arranged  to  become  participants  in  the  San  Diego  celebration  of  the  opening  of 
the  Panama  Canal.  Under  the  plan  of  President  Collier,  products  will  be  seen 
as  adjuncts  to  the  exhibition  of  processes  which  call  them  into  being. 


Birdseye  view  of  the  Exposition  grounds  and  the  City  of  San  Diego. 

[345] 


PANAMA  .  CALIFORNIA         EXPOSITION 


After  San  Diego  had  sent  her  invitations  to  the  various  states  of  the 
Union,  and  to  foreign  countries,  and  these  had  responded  in  so  much  greater 
number  than  was  at  first  deemed  possible,  it  was  found  necessary  to  greatly 
enlarge  the  scope  of  the  Exposition.  To  this  end  the  city  has  voted  an  ad- 
ditional $850,000  bond  issue,  making  the  third  million  dollars  raised  for  Expo- 
sition purposes,  by  the  city  of  San  Diego  alone. 

As  a  matter  of  strict  recognition  and  governmental  approval,  the  San 
Diego  Exposition  is  in  exactly  the  same  position  as  that  at  San  Francisco;  both 


Looking  east  along  the  Prado,  San  Diego  Exposition. 

expositions  have  been  "recognized"  by  the  Federal  Congress,  the  invitations 
to  each  have  been  transmitted  to  foreign  chancellories  by  the  Department  of 
State,  and  the  customs  and  immigration  laws  are  suspended  by  act  of  Congress, 
with  the  usual  restrictions  and  bonding  privileges  granted  in  such  cases. 

The  Smithsonian  Institution  and  the  National  Museum  have  co-operated 
with  the  Division  of  Eixhibits  to  secure  exhibits  of  ethnology  and  archaeology 
from  all  over  the  world,  and  Congressman  Kettner  introduced  a  bill  authoriz- 
ing the  departments  of  the  government  to  place  their  exhibits  here  as  well  as  at 
San  Francisco.  Enough  exhibits  have  been  secured  to  make  good  on  all  the 
promises  of  the  Exposition,  presenting  a  complete  exposition  of  the  history  and 
achievement  of  the  human  race  in  America,  including  the  great  government  de- 
partment exhibits. 

Food  prices  on  the  Exposition  grounds  are  regulated  by  the  management. 
The  hotels  of  San  Diego  have  agreed  upon  a  fixed  price  schedule. 

[  346  | 


T  NOON  on  Saturday,  February  20,  191.5,  the  Panama-Pacific  In- 
ternational Exposition  was  formally  opened  at  San  Francisco,  as 
the  official,  national  and  international  celebration  of  a  great  con- 
temporaneous event — the  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal,  the  his- 
tory and  construction  of  which  are  fully  and  faithfully  described  in 
the  complete  story  of  the  great  undertaking — eighth  wonder  of  the  world — 
which  appears  in  this  volume. 

The  opening  of  the  Exposition  was  a  glorious  success.  Five  years  of 
devoted  work  on  the  part  of  the  promoters  and  builders  ended  in  a  distin- 
guished triumph  for  all.  For  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  world  exposi- 
tions, everything  was  ready  on  time — even  the  catalogue  of  exhibits  was  ready 
— and  the  splendid  results  were  acclaimed  by  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  million 
people  who  thronged  the  grounds  on  the  opening  day.  Thus  the  records  of  all 
previous  national  and  international  expositions  held  in  the  United  States  were 
completely  eclipsed. 

In  tlie  White  Flouse  at  Washington,  President  Wilson  performed  the 
act  that  set  the  machinery  of  the  great  Exposition  in  motion,  and  crowned  the 
efforts  of  California  patriots  with  national  approval.  Unique  in  this  as  in  so 
many  other  respects,  the  Exposition  was  opened  by  wireless  telegraphy.  From 
a  gold  key  in  President  Wilson's  office,  a  wire  led  to  the  great  government 
radio  station  at  Tuckerton,  from  which  the  President's  signal  was  flashed 
clear  across  the  United  States,  caught  up  by  antenna?  stretched  from  the 
Tower  of  Jewels  to  the  Column  of  Progress  at  the  Exposition,  and  carried 
to  a  delicate  galvanometer  on  the  grand  stand  in  front  of  the  expectant  mul- 
titude. This  instrument  in  its  turn  tripped  a  relay  that  electrically  started 
the  huge  Diesel  engine  in  the  Palace  of  Machinery,  which  immediately  began 
to  supply  electric  current  to  all  the  moving  exhibits  in  the  great  hall.  At  the 
same  moment  the  fountains  began  to  play,  the  doors  of  the  exhibit  palaces 
were  thrown  open,  flags  rose  everywhere  as  if  by  magic,  and  President 
Charles  C.  Moore  formally  declared  the  Exposition  to  be  open  to  the  world. 

[347] 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 


Official  Parade  in  the  Avenue  of  Palms  oa  the  Opening  Day.  Left  to  Right — Lieut.  C.  H. 
Woolworth,  naval  aide;  William  H.  Crocker,  exposition  director;  Secretary  of  the  Interior 
Franklin  K.  Lane,  President  Wilson's  official  representative;  R.  B.  Hale,  exposition  director; 
C.  C.  Moore,  President  of  the  Exposition;  Capt.  Edwin  Carpenter,  U.  S.  A. 


Hon.  Franklin  K.  Lane,  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  himself  a  Californian, 
represented  President  Wilson  at  the  opening  ceremonies  and  paid  an  eloquent 
tribute  to  the  American  pioneer  and  to  the  courage  and  enterprise  that  had 
created  "this  new  city  by  the  Golden  Gate."  In  his  telegraphic  report  to  Pres- 
ident Wilson,  Secretary  Lane  said: 

"Two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  people  at  least  had  gathered  for  this 
moment.  They  waited  in  stillness  and  expectation  for  the  flash  of  your  wire- 
less signal  which  opened  the  Exposition,  and  then  broke  into  a  triumphal 
cheer. 

"It  was  not  only  one  of  the  most  spectacular,  but  one  of  the  most  impres- 
sive things  I  have  ever  seen.  The  fair  itself  is  complete  in  all  details.  Ex- 
hibits are  installed.  Its  architectural  beauty  has  certainly  never  been  excelled. 
I  doubt  if  it  has  been  equaled  either  in  Europe  or  this  country." 

In  his  opening  address,  as  Chairman  of  the  day,  President  Moore  said: 
"The  wisdom  of  Congress  in  deciding  that  the  great  work  of  constructing  the 
Panama  Canal  should  be  celebrated  is  obvious.  Its  wisdom  in  selecting 
California  to  act  as  host  for  the  Nation  is  yet  unproved,  but  we  offer  today  an 
accounting  of  our  stewardship  and  ask  of  our  fellow-citizens  the  credit  for  con- 
scientious earnestness,  lofty  ideals  and  high  purpose.     The  pride  that  every 

[348] 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 


citizen  should,  and  does,  feel  in  the  completion  of  the  Panama  Canal  has 
spurred  us  on  for  accomplishment.  We  have  felt  that  bringing  together  here 
the  best  we  could  secure  in  this  Nation  and  the  world  was  none  too  good  for 
the  purposes  of  the  great  celebration  in  our  charge.  This  work  we  have  con- 
sidered should  be  dedicated,  by  the  very  nature  of  the  celebration,  to  contem- 
poraneous achievement.  Education,  information,  and  human  uplift  have  there- 
fore been  the  prime  factors  that  have  moved  us.  In  our  architecture,  color, 
landscape,  lighting  effects,  statuary,  music,  and  all  branches  of  art,  and  the 
material  things  of  life  as  well,  we  have  striven  to  produce  a  result  that  would 
benefit  every  visitor  that  comes  within  the  Exposition  gates,  mindful  always 
that  the  event  we  celebrate  warrants  superlatively  the  best  effort  of  all." 

The  opening  ceremonies  were  preceded  by  a  parade  of  directors,  officials 
and  visitors  from  the  California  building  to  the  grand  stand  in  front  of  the 
Tower  of  Jewels,  and  also  by  a  public  parade  from  the  civic  center  of  San 
Francisco,  in  which  it  was  estimated  that  1.50,000  persons  participated. 

Under  these  promising  auspices  the  great  celebration  of  the  union  of  the 
oceans  was  fittingly  begun. 

BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  EXPOSITION 

Even  before  its  opening  the  Panama-Pacific  International  Exposition 
had  already  shattered  many  world  exposition  records.     Its  history  reflects  the 


The  Grand  Stand  on  Opening  Day.     President  C.  C.  Moore  receiving  President 
Wilson's  Message  of  Congratulation. 

[349] 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 


highest  credit  on  the  people  of  Califor 
taking  without  government  or  other  ou 
As  early  as  1904  it  had  been  sug 
an  international  exposition,  but  it  was 
celebration  of  the  building  of  the  P 
awake  determination  in  the  minds  of 
Coast  city.  On  the  afternoon  of  Decern 
to  a  call  for  a  mass  meeting  at  the  Mer 
organization  of  the  Panama-Pacific  In 


nia,  who  have  financed  the  great  under- 
tside  aid. 

gested  that  San  Francisco  should  hold 
not  until  1909  that  the  idea  of  a  world 
anama  Canal  began  to  take  form  and 
public-spirited  citizens  of  the  rebuilt 
ber  7,  1909,  over  500  citizens  responded 
chants'  Exchange,  from  which  grew  the 
ternational  Exposition.    On  January  6, 


Birdseye  view  of  western  half  of  Exposition  grounds,  as  seen  from  Tower  of  Jewels. 


1910,  a  board  of  thirty  directors  was  chosen,  and  in  the  following  April  a  sec- 
ond mass  meeting  was  held  in  the  Merchants'  Exchange  building,  at  which, 
in  less  than  two  hours,  $4,089,000  was  pledged  by  popular  subscription  to  the 
Exposition  fund.  This  sum  shortly  after  was  increased  to  $7,500,000,  and 
was  followed  by  a  bond  issue  of  $5,000, 000  voted  by  the  people  of  San  Francisco 
and  by  a  tax  of  another  $5,000,000  voted  by  the  State  of  California.  The  coun- 
ties of  California  then  volunteered  an  assessment  amounting  to  $3,000,000  to 
add  to  this  amount,  making  in  all  a  fund  of  over  $20,000,000  raised  entirely 
by  the  citizens  of  California,  to  enable  them  properly  to  perform  the  duties  en- 
trusted to  them  by  the  Nation. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  San  Francisco  was  not  alone  in  seeking  the 
honor  of  holding  the  official  National  celebration  of  the  triumph  over  nature  at 
Panama.     New  Orleans  was  the  principal  competitor,  but  fourteen  months 

[350] 


The  Tower  of  Jewels,  crowning  architectural  feature  of  the  Exposition,  with  the  Fountain 
of  Energy  in  the  foreground.  The  Tower  was  designed  by  Messrs.  Carrere  &  Hastings  of 
New  York,  rises  to  a  height  of  433  feet  and  fairly  dominates  the  artistic  groups  of  archi- 
tecture that  surround  it.  It  is  also  called  the  Main  Tower.  Strikingly  beautiful  by  day, 
its  beauty  is  enhanced  at  night  by  the  brilliant  illumination  of  which  it  is  the  center.  The 
"jewels"  of  the  Tower  (over  100,000  in  number)  are  prisms  of  handcut  glass,  hung  tremu- 
lously so  that  they  flash  and  scintillate  in  ever-changing  colors  as  they  sway  in  the  slightest 
breeze  or  respond  to  the  rays  of  the  sun  or  the  searchlights. 

[351] 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL  EXPOSITION 


Colonnaded  entranceway  from  the  Marina  upon  San  Francisco  Bay. 

of  strenuous  work  were  required  before  Congress,  on  January  31,  1911,  voted 
in  favor  of  the  Western  city.  Winning  the  exposition  for  San  Francisco  de- 
veloped one  of  the  most  spectacular  nation-wide  contests  the  country  has  ever 
witnessed.  In  this  battle  the  West  was  pitted  against  the  South.  The  cham- 
pions of  San  Francisco  won  victory  at  Washington  only  after  a  fight  in  which 
New  Orleans  proved  herself  no  mean  adversary.  When  the  fight  was  over,  the 
slogan,  "San  Francisco  Invites  the  World,"  was  already  famous. 

In  the  organization  of  the  Exposition  Company,  directed  by  the  strongest 
body  of  citizens  ever  called  to  assume  the  leadership  of  public  work  in  San 
Francisco,  the  success  of  the  great  task  was  assured.  The  ability  of  the  thirty 
directors  to  manage  the  work  was  manifested  in  the  remarkable  facility  with 
which  the  financial  resources  of  San  Francisco  were  enlisted  to  fill  the  Exposi- 
tion treasury,  as  well  as  in  the  completion  of  the  gigantic  task  on  time. 

The  first  president  of  the  Exposition,  named  on  March  24,  1910,  was 
Homer  S.  King.  A  year  later,  on  May  10,  1911,  Charles  C.  Moore,  former 
president  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  accepted  the  presidency  of  the  Ex- 
position Company  and  served  until  its  labors  reached  a  triumphant  conclusion 
on  the  opening  day. 

After  the  selection  of  the  site  at  Harbor  View  actual  construction  work 
was  publicly  begun  October  14,  1911,  President  Taft  turning  the  first  spade- 
ful of  earth;  and  on  February  2,  1912,  lie  made   official   proclamation   of  the 

[352] 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 


celebration,  inviting  the  nations  of  the  earth  to  join  therein.  Two  years  later, 
in  February,  1914,  President  Charles  C.  Moore  announced  to  the  world  that 
the  Exposition  buildings  were  75  per  cent  completed,  and  promised  that 
months  before  the  opening  day  every  detail  would  be  entirely  finished.  In  June 
of  1914,  eight  months  before  the  date  set,  this  promise  was  already  virtually 
fulfilled.  All  of  the  great  exhibit  palaces  with  the  single  exception  of  the 
classic  Palace  of  Fine  Arts,  which  was  being  constructed  of  steel  and  rein- 
forced concrete,  were  completed  and  exhibits  were  being  installed. 

HUGE  COST  OF  THE  EXPOSITION 

The  total  cost  of  the  buildings  and  grounds,  including  the  use  of  the 
site  to  January  1,  1917,  is  given  as  $15,000,000,  but  this  figure  represents 
only  a  portion  of  the  total  cost  of  the  Exposition.  The  counties  of  California 
spent  $3,000,000;  the  other  states  $8,000,000  and  foreign  governments 
$5,000,000,  while  $10,000,000  has  been  spent  in  the  concessions  and  the  exhibi- 
tors have  spent  something  like  $7,000,000;  so  that  it  is  estimated  that  the  total 
cost  of  the  Panama-Pacific  International  Exposition  is  $50,000,000,  exclusive 
of  the  value  of  the  exhibits,  which  is  said  to  be  at  least  $250,000,000,  al- 
though many  of  them  are  priceless. 

While  other  expositions,  even  with  generous  Government  aid,  have  en- 
countered financial  difficulties,  the  Panama-Pacific  International  Exposition, 
without  one  cent  of  Federal  aid,  opened  its  gates  with  every  financial  obliga- 


Palace  of  Education,  strikingly  reflected  in  the  limpid  waters  of  the  lagoon. 
The  half-dome  of  Philosophy  over  main  entrance, 

[353] 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 


tion  duly  met  and  discharged.  Thus  the  declared  ambition  of  the  directors  was 
fulfilled,  while  the  confidence  of  the  stockholders  and  public  in  the  ability  and 
wisdom  of  these  leading  representatives  of  the  San  Francisco  spirit  was  fully 
justified  by  the  wonderful  result  of  their  five  years'  labor. 

In  still  another  particular  the  Panama-Pacific  International  Exposition, 
in  the  latter  half  of  1914,  made  a  distinguished  record.  Months  before  the  for- 
mal opening,  throngs  of  citizens  and  visitors  paid  admission  to  the  grounds,  so 
that  the  gate  receipts  for  the  pre-exposition  period  were  $220,096,  and  the  re- 
ceipts from  the  concessions  in  the  same  period  were  $459,287,  making  a  total 
income  in  these  months  before  the  official  opening  of  $679,383.  And  this  rec- 
ord was  accomplished  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  for  nearly  two  months  before  the 
official  opening  the  gates  were  closed  to  the  public,  to  permit  the  uninter- 
rupted distribution  of  the  exhibits  among  the  various  palaces. 

FOUR  YEARS  OF  CONSTRUCTION 

Two  years — 1911  and  1912 — were  devoted  to  the  preliminary  work  on  the 
great  Exposition.  While  there  was  not  much  to  arouse  popular  enthusiasm  in 
this  period,  the  foundations  were  laid  in  a  manner  which  later  made  it  possible 
to  open  the  Exposition  on  time  with  all  the  palaces  completed.  In  these  two 
years  the  leading  architects  of  San  Francisco  and  the  East  perfected  the  won- 
derful architectural  plan  of  the  Exposition  and  the  site  was  filled  and  graded. 

The  last  two  years  of  the  great  work — 1913  and  1914 — were  occupied 
with  the  actual  work  of  construction.     One  contract  after  another  was  let  and 


U.  S.  Troops  entering  Court  of  the  Universe  for  exhibition  drill. 

[354] 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 


Festival  Hall,  from  the  South  Gardens. 


completed  on  time.  Artists  added  the  touch  of  color.  The  landscape  garden- 
ing was  completed  in  its  magnificence;  the  illumination  scheme  carried  out; 
sculpture  and  mural  painting  took  their  place  in  the  poetic  scheme  of  the  com- 
position; and  long  before  the  opening  day  thousands  had  seen  and  admired  the 
completed  Exposition. 

In  magnificence  and  splendor,  number  of  palaces,  beauty  of  grounds, 
number  and  quality  of  exhibits,  diversity  of  subjects,  completeness  of  detail 
and  hugeness  of  the  whole  this  is  an  Exposition  adequate  to  the  event  it  cele- 
brates. It  will  have  great  and  lasting  effect  upon  the  trade,  relationship  and 
commercial  activity  of  all  countries. 

A  MAGNIFICENT  SITE 

The  site  of  the  Exposition,  in  its  combination  of  scenic  beauty  and  prac- 
tical advantages,  is  probably  unequaled  in  the  world.  It  is  a  natural  amphi- 
theater covering  635  acres,  backed  by  residence-covered  hills  flanked  by  the 
wooded  heights  and  fortifications  of  the  Presidio  Military  reservation,  front- 
ing on  the  wonderful  blue  island-studded  Bay  of  San  Francisco,  just  inside 
the  portals  of  the  famous  "Golden  Gate."  The  Exposition  city,  which  covers 
these  63.5  acres,  is  the  realized  dream  of  the  best  architectural  genius  of  Amer- 
ica, supplemented  by  all  that  famous  artists  can  do  in  color,  all  that  modern  sci- 
ence can  do  in  lighting  effects  and  all  that  skilled  gardeners  and  the  Califor- 
nia climate  can  do  in  flowers  and  trees.  Its  beauty  will  live  in  the  memory  of 
beholders  as  long  as  memory  itself  endures. 

[355] 


PANAMA^-PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL  EXPOSITION 


Avenue  of  Palms,  showing  Tower  of  Jewels  on  the  left. 

One  of  the  unique  features  of  the  Exposition  site  is  that  it  lies  in  the  very 
heart  of  the  best  residential  district  of  San  Francisco,  within  fifteen  minutes' 
street-car  ride  from  the  City  Hall.  Thousands  of  visitors  walk  to  its  gates 
daily  from  their  hotels  or  residences. 

The  central  portion  of  the  site  lies  slightly  above  the  sea  and  is  encircled 
on  three  sides  by  gently  sloping  ground;  within  a  short  distance  from  the 
boundaries  of  the  site  these  slopes  change  to  steep  hillsides  and  thus  the  site 
becomes  the  floor  of  a  huge  amphitheater  from  whose  sides  the  Exposition  is 
seen  stretched  out  below.  To  the  east  and  south  the  residence  section  of  the 
city  encircles  the  Exposition  grounds  and  to  the  west  and  southwest  the  site 
is  embraced  by  the  wooded  slopes  of  the  Presidio,  dark  with  cypress  and 
eucalyptus  and  interspersed  with  occasional  vistas  of  green  valleys. 

Upon  the  north  the  site  opens  out  as  a  crescent  upon  the  harbor  of  San 
Francisco,  just  inside  the  Golden  Gate.  In  the  Bay  before  the  site  lies  Alca- 
traz  Island,  the  location  of  a  naval  prison,  whose  white  walls  are  reflected  in 
the  waters  of  the  lower  harbor.  Beyond  are  the  hills  of  Marin  County,  rising 
up  into  hundreds  and  in  some  instances  into  thousands  of  feet,  with  Mount  Ta- 
malpais,  loftiest  of  all,  its  summit  often  shrouded  with  a  turban  of  fog  upon 
which  the  sun  shines  as  upon  a  vast  bank  of  snow,  as  a  background  for  the 
setting.    From  the  west  of  the  site  one  may  look  out  to  the  rim  of  the  Pacific 

[356] 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 


Ocean  through  the  straits  of  the  Golden  Gate,  a  mile  and  a  quarter  wide, 
guarded  on  each  side  by  rugged  cliffs  and  protected  by  forts. 

The  Exposition  buildings,  built  upon  an  axis  east  and  west,  face  the  Bay 
upon  the  north  and  parallel  the  streams  of  the  great  incoming  traffic  of  the 
world  through  the  western  gate  of  the  United  States.  Ships  entering  the 
great  harbor  pass  before  the  Exposition  grounds,  and  the  harbor  itself  is  part 
of  the  mammoth  theater  upon  which  this  world  celebration  is  fitly  staged. 

Thus  the  site  adapts  itself  to  the  carrying  out  of  wonderful  aquatic  dis- 
plays. Carnivals,  maneuvers  by  the  fleets,  international  yacht  racing,  motor- 
boat  racing,  exhibitions  by  submarines  and  hydroplanes — all  can  be  carried  on 
in  the  immediate  foreground  of  the  Exposition  palaces.  All  the  navies  of  the 
world  could  here  assemble  and  land  their  crews  right  on  the  edge  of  the  Ma- 
rina, the  beautiful  waterfront  pier  and  promenade. 

PARTICirATIOX  OF   THE   NATIONS 

Forty-one  nations  of  the  earth  are  represented  at  the  great  Exposition 
by  exhibits  showing  some  phase  of  national  industry,  and  forty-three  states  of 
the  United  States  are  also  represented.  The  total  amount  appropriated  by 
nations  and  states  for  participation  is  $10,000,000.  Many  of  the  pavilions  of 
the  nations  and  states  vie  with  the  larger  exposition  palaces  in  beauty  of 
design. 

"Today  the  world  is  here  in  epitome,"  said  Director-in-Chief  Frederick 
J.  V.  Skiff,  on  the  opening  day,  and  the  remark  truly  summarized  the  Expo- 


Dominion  of  Canada  building,  Panama-Pacific  Exposition. 

[357] 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 


sition.  Within  the  main  exhibit  palaces  are  found  in  epitome,  the  varied  re- 
sults of  the  world's  progress  and  knowledge  in  the  applied  sciences.  The  Ex- 
position is  intended  to  be  truly  contemporaneous,  and  for  that  reason  no  ex- 
hibit will  be  considered  for  award  by  the  international  jury  of  awards  that 
has  not  been  produced  during  the  past  decade;  that  does  not,  in  other  words, 
represent  an  advance  in  the  particular  field  it  covers  since  the  St.  Louis  Expo- 
sition of  1904. 

While  the  great  war  in  Europe  has  deprived  the  Exposition  of  the  partici- 
pation of  several  of  the  belligerent  nations,  there  is  one  department  that  has 


The  beautiful  Court  of  Abundance,  with  Tower  of  Jewels  at  left. 

been  enriched  above  all  others  as  an  unexpected  result  of  the  war.  This  is  the 
department  of  Fine  Arts,  which  is  housed  in  a  mighty  Greco-Roman  palace, 
one-fifth  of  a  mile  in  length.  Art  treasures  of  the  Old  World  that  otherwise 
never  would  have  been  removed  from  their  places  in  famous  galleries  were 
shipped  to  San  Francisco  on  the  new  United  States  Government  collier,  Jason 
(the  "Christmas  ship"  of  1914)  as  a  measure  of  protection  in  the  event  that 
opposing  armies  should  happen  to  lay  waste  other  cities  famous  for  their  art, 
as  the  cities  of  Belgium  have  been  laid  waste. 

In  the  matter  of  foreign  participation,  the  directors  of  the  Panama-Pa- 
cific International  Exposition  were  severely  handicapped  by  world  conditions 
unprecedented  and  deplorable,  in  addition  to  the  usual  obstacles  that  confront 

[358] 


WHO 

ARE 

>*T0    THOSE 
-iO  LOVE  !T 


THE    MOOfJ    SINKS    TO'. 

WHILE    IN    THE   EAST    "HE   fcLORtO 

BEHIND    THE    HERALD    DAWN'    APPEARS    • 

=  i_-E   KKD  SET    N  CON 
THOSE     SHINING    ORBS    AND    R£ 
THE    VERY 


\/ 


A  rear  view  of  the  great  triumphal  "Arch  of  the  Rising  Sun,"  surmounted  by  the  sym- 
bolical sculptured  group,  "  The  Nations  of  the  East."  The  howdah  upon  the  elephant  rises 
186  feet  above  the  floor  level  of  the  Court  of  the  Universe.  Both  this  arch  and  its  com- 
panion, the  "Arch  of  the  Setting  Sun,"  are  larger  than  the  famous  Arc  de  Triomphe  in  Paris. 


[359] 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL  EXPOSITION 


The  Australian  building,  a  splendid  specimen  of  the  foreign  pavilions. 

such  undertakings.  The  horrific  war  in  Europe  found  echoes  in  San  Fran- 
cisco during  the  last  six  months  of  the  construction  period,  and  changed  some 
important  plans,  but  through  all  the  trials  of  the  directors,  with  the  sympa- 
thetic support  of  the  United  States  Government,  the  states  of  the  Union,  and 
foreign  countries  as  well,  they  steadfastly  pursued  their  course,  although 
their  courage  and  perseverance  were  taxed  at  times  to  their  full  limit. 

"We  are  enjoying  here  today  the  fruits  of  peace,"  said  President  Charles 
C.  Moore  at  the  opening  ceremonies  of  the  Exposition.  "Difficult  it  is  for  us 
to  realize  that  in  other  civilized  countries  conditions  are  so  vastly  different — 
in  countries,  too,  well  loved  by  us,  and  to  which  by  reason  of  our  cosmopolitan 
population  we  are  bound  by  ties  of  birth,  of  blood  and  of  interest.  President 
Wilson  has  spoken  for  us  all  the  words  of  neutrality.  Practically  all  coun- 
tries are  represented  at  this  Exposition.  Through  our  people  our  connections 
with  and  regard  for  all  countries  are  most  cordial  and  close.  Since,  however, 
the  one  cloud  in  the  sky  of  our  happiness  today,  at  the  opening  of  our  great 
celebration,  dedicated  as  it  is  to  the  glories  of  peace,  is  the  fact  that  our  fellow- 
men  are  in  discord,  I  am  sure  it  is  strictly  neutral,  and  not  improper,  for  a 
heart  prayer  to  go  up  that  before  the  time  rolls  by  to  close  these  Exposition 
gates,  consecrated  to  progress  and  to  peace,  the  awful  specter  of  war  shall  have 
vanished ;  and  that  on  these  grounds  can  be  consummated  the  amity  and  good- 
will among  men  that  will  guarantee  human  advancement." 

f  3601 


PANAMA-PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 

A    BEAUTIFUL    ARCHITECTURAL  SCHEME 

Standing  on  the  brow  of  the  hill  just  outside  the  main  Exposition  gate  the 
architecture  of  the  wonder  city  may  be  studied  in  perspective.  Although  the 
great  palaces  are  of  mammoth  proportions  it  can  readily  be  seen  that  they  are 
not  wholly  separate.  Into  this  scheme  of  architecture  comes  the  added  beauty 
and  connecting  link  of  five  great  courts,  and  it  is  evident  that  the  massive  struc- 
tures were  designed  so  that  they  might  form  the  walls  for  courts  of  unparal- 
leled magnificence  and  splendor. 

The  main  exhibit  palaces,  eleven  in  number,  contain,  under  a  comprehen- 
sive and  representative  classification,  examples  of  the  resources  and  achieve- 
ments along  all  lines  of  human  endeavor,  which  are  divided  into  departments 
as  follows:  "A",  Fine  Arts;  "B",  Education;  "C",  Social  Economy;  "D", 
Liberal  Arts;  "E",  Manufactures  and  Varied  Industries;  "F",  Machinery; 
"G",  Transportation;  "H",  Agriculture;  "I",  Food  Products;  "K",  Horti- 
culture; "L",  Mines  and  Metallurgy. 

These  eleven  great  palaces,  together  with  Festival  Hall,  form  the  cen- 
tral setting  of  a  beautiful  picture,  flanked  on  the  city  side  by  the  amuse- 
ment section  or  concessions  district  (the  Zone)  and  on  the  other  end  by  the 
buildings  of  the  various  states  and  the  pavilions  of  the  foreign  nations.  These 
latter  join  the  aviation  field,  race  track  and  live  stock  exhibit,  terminating  in 
the  grounds  of  the  great  military  reservation,  the  Presidio,  where  the  compe- 
titive drills  and  army  maneuvers  will  take  place. 


Facade  Palace  of  Food  Products  and  Sunken  Pool. 
[361] 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 


Arch  of  the  Rising  Sun,  Court  of  the  Universe. 


In  formation  the  eight  main  exhibit  palaces — Education,  Liberal  Arts, 
Manufacturers,  Varied  Industries,  Agriculture,  Food  Products,  Transporta- 
tion, and  Mines  and  Metallurgy — represent  a  quadrangle,  being  bisected  by  an 
avenue  east  and  west  and  intersected  by  avenues  north  and  south,  the  intersec- 
tions marking  the  three  great  courts.  The  facades  of  the  palaces  are  the  walls 
of  these  courts  and  partake  of  the  particular  style  of  architecture  dominating 
the  court  on  which  they  front.  These  eight  palaces  are  flanked  on  the  east  by 
the  great  Palace  of  Machinery  and  on  the  west  by  the  Palace  of  Fine  Arts. 

Passing  through  the  main  gate  on  the  city  side  the  visitor  enters  the  great 
South  Garden,  3,000  feet  in  length,  on  the  right  extremity  of  which  can  be  seen 
the  beautiful  Festival  Hall.  To  the  extreme  left  is  the  Palace  of  Horticulture. 
Immediately  in  front  is  the  Main  Tower  or  "Tower  of  Jewels."  This  great 
garden,  itself  a  marvel  of  landscape  engineering  skill,  is  but  one  side  of  a  magic 
carpet  on  which  these  beautiful  palaces  are  set,  the  300-foot  wide  "Marina" 
and  its  grand  esplanade,  with  its  floricultural  splendors,  forming  the  other  side, 
the  pattern  threading  its  winding  way  through  the  various  courts  and  recesses 
over  the  entire  grounds,  forming  a  correlated  whole  which,  for  wondrous 
beauty,  has  never  been  equaled. 

Passing  from  this  great  garden  under  the  arch  of  the  main  tower  the  visi- 
tor enters  the  "Court  of  the  Universe,"  the  largest  of  the  five  courts  of  the  Ex- 
position. This  is  the  meeting  place  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  hemispheres, 
and  the  decorative  scheme  on  each  side  is  typical  of  this  theme.  .  On  the 
extreme  right  and  left  are  two  great  triumphal  arches,  the  one  on  the  right, 

[362] 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 


which  leads  to  the  Court  oi'  Abundance,  being-  surmounted  by  a  magnificent 
statuary  group,  "The  Nations  of  the  East,"  the  figures  symbolizing  life  in  the 
Orient,  while  the  arch  on  the  left,  leading  to  the  Court  of  the  Four  Seasons, 
has  a  group  of  the  same  proportions,  "The  Nations  of  the  West,"  symbolical 
of  life  in  the  Occident.  Straight  ahead  is  the  colossal  Column  of  Progress,  sur- 
mounted by  the  "Adventurous  Bowman"  shooting  the  arrow  toward  the  West. 

To  the  right,  under  the  "Arch  of  the  Rising  Sun,"  is  the  avenue  leading 
to  the  "Court  of  Abundance,"  which  terminates  at  its  southern  extremity  in 
the  "Court  of  Flowers,"  one  of  the  minor  courts;  while  to  the  left,  under  the 
"Arch  of  the  Setting  Sun,"  is  the  avenue  leading  to  the  beautiful  "Court  of  the 
Four  Seasons,"  which,  at  its  southern  extremity,  enters  the  other  minor  court, 
the  "Court  of  Palms." 

Continuing  straight  ahead  one  comes  to  the  edge  of  the  spacious  Yacht 
Harbor,  and  the  center  of  the  Grand  Esplanade  or  "Marina."  Long  after  the 
Exposition  is  over — when  it  is  only  a  fond  and  loving  memory — this  esplan- 
ade will  remain  to  grace  and  enhance  the  natural  beauties  of  San  Francisco 
Bay. 

THE  GREAT  EXHIBIT  BUILDINGS 

Palace  of  Fine  Arts.  This  fireproof  structure,  designed  by  R.  B. 
May  beck,  describes  an  arc  of  1,100  feet,  running  north  and  south,  and  faces 
upon  a  great  lagoon  of  placid  water  which  reflects  its  beautiful  architecture. 
In  the  center  of  the  arc  is  a  great  dome,  with  steps  leading  down  to  the  la- 
goon in  a  beautiful  setting  of  shrubbery,  composed  of  Monterey  cypress  and 


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Court  of  the  Four  Seasons, with  Fountain  of  Ceres  in  center. 

[363] 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL  EXPOSITION 


Palace  of  Horticulture,  the  Dome  Suggesting  a  Mosque  in  Stamboul. 


other  evergreen  trees,  making  perhaps  the  prettiest  setting  of  the  whole  Expo- 
sition site.  The  painting  and  sculpture  of  every  nation  of  artistic  prominence 
is  shown  in  this  palace.  The  exhibits  in  the  United  States  section  consist  not 
only  of  the  work  of  contemporary  artists,  but  of  historic  American  paintings 
from  the  time  of  West,  Copley  and  Stuart  to  the  present,  and  a  loan  collection 
of  canvases  by  foreign  artists  owned  in  the  United  States.  The  installation  of 
the  canvases  and  small  bronzes  permits  close  inspection,  the  color  scheme  of  the 
galleries  varying  to  serve  as  a  sympathetic  background  for  their  contents. 

Palace  of  Horticulture.  This  palace  is  constructed  almost  entirely  of 
glass  and  covers  over  five  acres.  It  is  surmounted  by  an  immense  glass  dome 
180  feet  in  height  and  152  feet  in  diameter.  The  building  is  672  feet  long  and 
its  greatest  width  is  320  feet.  An  imposing  nave  80  feet  in  height  runs  the 
length  of  the  building  and  paralleling  the  central  nave  are  (one  on  either  side) 
two  side  aisles  each  50  feet  in  height.  All  phases  of  practical  horticulture  are 
embraced  in  this  exhibit.  Among  other  things  a  fully  equipped  fruit-canning 
establishment  is  in  operation,  showing  the  sanitary  way  in  which  fruit  is  pre- 
pared and  canned;  there  are  a  seed-packing  establishment,  an  orange-packing- 
house, and  olive  oil  presses  in  operation ;  also  tools  used  in  the  culture  of  fruits, 
trees  and  flowers.  The  frostless  climate  of  California,  which  enables  plant  life 
to  attain  the  highest  perfection,  gives  the  floricultural  exhibit  a  distinction  and 
beauty  it  has  not  been  possible  to  attain  a  t  other  expositions  where  the  seasons 

T3641 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 

have  been  short  and  the  winters  severe.  The  building  was  designed  by  Messrs. 
Bakewell  &  Brown,  of  San  Francisco. 

Palace  of  Machinery.  This  palace,  designed  by  Messrs.  Ward  &  Blohme, 
of  San  Francisco,  is  the  largest  building  erected  on  the  Exposition  site.  It  is 
968  feet  by  368  feet.  One  mile  and  a  half  of  cornices  was  used  in  ornament- 
ing the  building,  and  four  carloads  of  nails  and  1,500  tons  of  bolts  and  washers 
were  used  in  its  construction.  In  this  palace  are  assembled  exhibits  of  ma- 
chinery used  in  the  generation,  transmission  and  application  of  power.  Sev- 
eral groups  comprise  examples  of  steam  generators  and  motors  utilizing 
steam,  internal  combustion  motors,  hydraulic  motors,  miscellaneous  motors, 
general  machinery  apparatus  and  accessories,  and  tools  for  shaping  wood  and 
metals.  Ten  special  electrical  groups  cover  the  generation,  distribution  and 
control  of  electrical  energy  in  its  application  to  mechanical  and  motor  power, 
lighting  and  heating. 

The  following  eight  palaces,  comprising  the  central  group,  are  composite  in 
design,  each  facade  partaking  of  the  particular  style  of  architecture  dominating 
the  court  on  which  it  fronts. 

Palace  of  Education  and  Social  Economy.  The  exhibits  in  this  palace 
show  development  along  these  lines  since  1905,  and  by  specializing  on  prominent 
movements  and  reforms  seek  to  forecast  the  education  of  the  future.  There 
is  a  comparative  exhibit  of  the  educational  systems  of  all  nations  participat- 
ing and  a  comprehensive  demonstration  of  educational  work  in  the  United 


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Filipino  Band  Concert  at  the  Philippine  Islands  pavilion. 

[365] 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 

States  in  all  its  phases  from  kindergarten  to  university.  The  Department  of 
Social  Economy  has  brought  together  a  comprehensive  collection  of  exhibits 
illustrative  of  the  conditions  and  necessities  of  man  considered  as  a  member  of 
organized  society  and  government,  together  with  displays  showing  the  agencies 
of  mearts  employed  for  his  well  being.  As  far  as  possible,  operating  examples 
are  given.  Child  welfare,  and  the  work  of  organizations  such  as  boy  scouts, 
campfire  girls,  etc.,  charities,  corrections,  criminology,  urban  problems,  park 
systems,  public  buildings,  street  improvements,  method  of  disposing  of  sew- 
age, etc.,  receive  exhaustive  treatment  by  exhibits.  Such  matters  as  finance  in 
its  relation  to  the  public  welfare  and  in  connection  with  such  agencies  as  banks 
and  provident  associations,  modern  credit  associations,  etc.,  are  illustrated. 
All  matters  pertaining  to  commerce  in  the  way  of  distribution  of  goods, 
business  standards  and  systems;  all  labor  problems  involving  working  condi- 
tions and  standards,  welfare  and  efficiency,  and  including  domestic  science 
and  woman's  vocations,  may  be  exhaustively  studied  and  compared  by  exhibits. 
The  latest  discoveries  in  hygiene,  methods  of  missionary  work,  international 
and  universal  peace  institutions,  diplomatic  and  consular  systems — all  these 
also  receive  a  broad  and  sympathetic  treatment  by  exhibitional  studies. 

Palace  of  Liberal  Arts.  Liberal  Arts  rank  high  in  the  classification  of 
exhibits  because  they  embrace  the  applied  sciences  which  indicate  the  result  of 
man's  education  and  culture,  illustrate  his  tastes  and  demonstrate  his  inven- 


New  York's  beautiful  building,  typical  of  the  Empire  State. 

[366] 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL  EXPOSITION 


Dome  of  the  Palace  of  Horticulture,  185  feet  high,  152  feet  in  diameter. 

tive  genius  and  scientific  attainment  and  express  his  artistic  nature.  This 
splendid  palace  is  directly  opposite  the  main  entrance  to  the  Exposition 
grounds  from  the  city  side  and  is  approximately  .585  feet  long,  470  feet  wide 
and  65  feet  high,  and  covers  nearly  six  acres. 

Palaces  of  Manufactures  and  Varied  Industries.  The  department  of  a 
universal  Exposition  which  has  the  combined  interest  of  all  nations  is  the  ex- 
hibition  of  finished  products  of  manufacture  and  manual  skill,  the  objects  of 
utility,  luxury  and  taste  in  which  each  country  excels  and  which  constitute  the 
most  valuable  and  profitable  part  of  foreign  trade.  The  art  industries  of  the 
world  are  brilliantly  displayed  in  the  Palace  of  Manufactures  and  Varied  In- 
dustries. 

Palace  of  Transportation.  The  exhibits  in  this  palace  have  been  made, 
as  far  as  possible,  contemporaneous,  not  historical.  The  very  latest  achieve- 
ments of  human  ingenuity,  covering  the  entire  field  of  transportation,  are  dis- 
played. On  account  of  the  great  development  of  the  motor-boat  industry  and 
aerial  navigation  these  two  groups  are  thoroughly  represented,  both  in  indoor 
and  outdoor  exhibits.  In  this  palace  are  also  shown  the  exhibits  of  all  the 
great  steamship  companies,  the  water  transportation  of  all  countries,  their 
navigation  and  commerce,  characteristic  boats  and  ships  of  all  nations.  Sail 
and  steam  yachts  are  generally  shown  by  models.  Electric  exhibits  show  the 
latest  application  of  electricity  to  the  agency  of  transportation  and  the  loco- 

[367] 


PANAMA-PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 


California's  great  building — largest  state  building  ever  erected  at  an  Exposition.  Reminis- 
cent of  Mission  architecture,  with  its  patios  and  cloisters,  it  contains  an  immense  ballroom, 
a  great  reception  room,  roof  garden,  and  offices  for  the  president  of  the  Exposition.  The 
great  tower  is  70  feet  square  and  120  feet  high. 


motive  exhibit  illustrates  the  latest  types.  The  car  exhibits  show  the  modern 
development  of  street  car  equipment,  and  there  is  a  complete  showing  of  rail- 
way supplies,  including  all  the  new  inventions  and  appliances  for  the  protec- 
tion of  life  and  property  in  this  connection. 

Palace  of  Agriculture.  The  section  of  the  Exposition  devoted  to  the 
interests  of  agriculture  embraces  an  area  of  more  than  forty  acres.  The  Palace 
of  Agriculture  proper,  covers  seven  and  one-half  acres.  The  exhibits  deal 
with  every  phase  of  the  agricultural  industry.  A  very  important  group  is 
devoted  to  farm  implements  and  machinery.  In  this  department  also  is  shown 
all  that  pertains  to  forestry  and  forest  products. 

Palace  of  Agriculture  (food  products).  Under  this  same  department, 
although  in  a  separate  palace,  the  multiform  exhibits  governing  the  food  prod- 
ucts of  the  entire  world  have  been  grouped.  Vegetable  and  animal  food 
products  and  the  equipment  and  methods  employed  in  the  preparation  of  foods 
and  beverages  are  extensively  shown. 

Palace  of  Mines  and  Metallurgy.  The  exhibits  in  this  palace  deal  with 
the  natural  mineral  resources  of  the  world,  their  exploration  and  exploitation, 
their  conversion  into  metal,  and  their  manufacture  into  structural  forms  and 
into  raw  material  for  the  various  industries.  They  take  in  the  ordinary  metals 
such  as  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  zinc,  iron,  aluminum,  etc. ;  the  rare  metals 
such  as  tungsten,  vanadium,  uranium,  radium,  platinum,  etc.;  the  non-metallic 
substances,  such  as  clay,  cement  and  their  products;  coal,  oil  and  gas;  the 
salines,  fertilizers,  etc.  The  object  of  the  Mines  and  Metallurgy  exhibit  is  two- 
fold :  first,  to  draw  attention  to  the  natural  mineral  resources  of  each  country, 
state  or  community  so  that  the  public  may  learn  of  the  mode  of  occurrence  of 
the  metals  of  commerce  and  their  distribution,  of  the  stage  of  development  of 
the  various  districts,  of  present  sources  of  supply  and  consumption  and  of 
possible  future  sources  of  supply  and  of  extended  markets;  second,  to  educate 

[368] 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 


the  public  in  a  general  way  regarding  the  details  of  the  industry,  its  problems 
and  its  needs. 

MISCELLANEOUS   BUILDINGS 

Live  Stock  Exhibit.  In  keeping  with  the  general  plan  of  the  Exposition 
the  Department  of  Live  Stock  has  beenpresented  in  a  better  manner  than  has 
heretofore  characterized  such  exhibitions.  Competitions  for  the  $17.3,000  in 
prize  money  appropriated  by  the  Exposition,  and  for  the  supplemental  pre- 
miums offered  by  the  breeders'  associations,  are  announced  for  the  months  of 
October  and  November.  In  addition  to  this  is  a  continuous  live  stock  display 
from  February  20  to  December  4,  1915.  In  housing,  classification  and 
arrangements  of  the  exhibits,  the  Department  of  Live  stock  at  San  Francisco 
demonstrates  the  advancement  that  has  been  made  since  the  last  world  exposi- 
tion. Special  events  include  universal  polo,  international  cavalry  contests,  two 
harness  horse  racing  meets,  and  the  carrying  on  of  a  series  of  demonstrations 
intended  to  teach  everything  that  is  new  in  this  important  industry. 

The  Exposition  Auditorium.  This  building,  designed  by  Messrs.  John 
Galen  Howard,  Frederick  H.  Meyer  and  John  Reid,  Jr.,  is  a  four-story  struc- 
ture of  steel  and  stone  and  graces  the  civic  center  of  San  Francisco.  It  will  be 
a  lasting  and  beautiful  monument  to  the  Panama-Pacific  International  Expo- 
sition. The  Exposition  management  paid  over  one  million  dollars  for  its  erec- 
tion and  the  City  and  County  of  San  Francisco  paid  nearly  a  million  dollars 


Oregon's  characteristic  building,  with  columns  of  huge  native  logs. 

[369] 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 


Indiana  State  building — a  homelike  structure   in   Queen   Anne  style,  especially  adapted  for 
the  hospitable  entertainment  of  Hoosier  visitors  and  guests. 

for  the  site.  The  main  auditorium  of  this  building  accommodates  twelve 
thousand  persons. 

Festival  Hall.  This  will  be  the  scene  of  many  of  the  great  festivals  and 
choral  competitions  entered  into  by  the  various  singing  organizations  of  the 
world.  Festival  Hall  is  built  in  the  French  theater  style  of  architecture  with 
one  large  dome  and  various  minor  domes  and  minarets,  profusely  decorated 
with  statuary.  The  main  hall  contains  seats  for  about  three  thousand  persons, 
and  here  has  been  placed  a  huge  pipe  organ  which  is  seventh  in  size  in  the  world. 

The  California  Building.  This  building  is  in  the  old  Mission  style  and 
covers  approximately  350  feet  by  675  feet.  In  form  it  consists  of  a  towered 
main  building,  two  stories  in  height  and  surrounded  by  an  immense  court.  Its 
construction  and  furnishings  represent  an  outlay  of  considerably  over  half  a 
million  dollars.  This  is  the  "Host  Building"  of  the  Exposition  and  contains 
the  displays  of  the  fifty-eight  counties  of  California.  This  building,  with  its 
walled-in  court  and  park,  covers  about  seven  acres.  The  Women's  Board,  an 
auxiliary  of  the  Exposition,  assumed  the  responsibility  of  furnishing  and  main- 
tenance, and  has  entire  charge  of  its  social  administration.  Designed  bv  Thos. 
H.  L.  Burdette. 

Main  Tower  or  "Tower  of  Jewels."  Designed  by  Messrs.  Carrere  & 
Hastings,  of  New  York.  This  tower  rises  to  a  height  of  433  feet  and,  from 
an  architectural  standpoint,  is  the  dominating  feature  of  the  Exposition.  This 
is  the  center  of  the  brilliant  night  illumination,  the  outline  of  the  tower  being 
defined  by  over  one  hundred  thousand  hand  cut  glass  "jewels"  or  prisms,  hung 
tremulously,  the  least  atmospheric  disturbance  causing  them  to  flash  and 
change  and  scintillate  in  a  thousand  different  tints  and  colors. 

f370] 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 


THE  COURTS  AND  THEIR  BEAUTY 

The  Court  of  the  Universe.  Designed  by  Messrs.  McKim,  Mead  & 
White,  of  New  York,  this  is  the  great  central  court  or  court  of  honor  of  the 
Exposition,  and  in  design  and  decoration  it  is  made  to  represent  the  meeting 
place  of  the  hemispheres.  It  is  700  feet  long  and  900  feet  wide,  and  contains 
a  sunken  garden  in  the  center.  At  the  northern  end,  between  the  palaces  of 
Agriculture  and  Transportation,  is  a  great  pool  of  water  embellished  with 
statuary  and  fountains. 

The  Court  of  Abundance.  This  is  the  east  central  court  of  the  Exposi- 
tion and  in  design  shows  the  Oriental  phase  of  the  Spanish-Moorish  type.  This 
court  is  dedicated  to  music,  dancing,  acting  and  pageantry.  Designed  by 
Louis  C.  Mullgardt. 

The  Court  of  the  Four  Seasons.  This  is  the  west  central  court  and  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  sections  of  the  Exposition.  It  is  said  that  Hadrian's 
Villa,  one  of  the  historic  Roman  palaces,  was  the  inspiration  for  this  court. 
It  is  surrounded  by  a  beautiful  colonnade,  in  each  of  the  four  corners  of  which 
are  niches  containing  statuary  representing  the  four  seasons.  Designed  by 
Henry  Bacon,  of  New  York. 

The  Court  of  Palms.  Designed  by  George  W.  Kelham,  of  San  Fran- 
cisco. This  is  one  of  the  two  minor  courts  of  the  Exposition.  Its  entrance  is 
from  the  great  South  Garden  between  two  towers,  each  rising  to  a  height 
of  200  feet  and  favoring  in  architecture  the  period  of  the  Italian  Renaissance. 
This  court  contains  a  showing  of  rare  and  beautiful  palms. 

The  Court  of  Flowers.  This  is  the  second  of  the  minor  courts,  also  hav- 
ing its  entrance  from  the  great   South  Garden  between  two  Italian  towers 


'TT pr 


Washington  state  building,  another  fine  example  of  pavilion  architecture. 

L  371  | 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL  EXPOSITION 


"The  Nations  of  the  West,"  symbolical  of  life  in  the  Occident — a  magnificent 
group  of  statuary  on  the  arch  leading  to  the  Court  of  the  Four  Seasons. 

almost  the  exact  duplicate  of  those  at  the  entrance  to  the  Court  of  Palms. 
While  the  smallest  of  the  Exposition  courts  it  is  nevertheless  as  beautiful  as 
the  others,  and,  as  the  name  denotes,  is  a  perfect  paradise  of  vari-colored 
flowers.     Designed  by  George  W.  Kelham. 

THE  EXPOSITION    STATUARY 

The  splendid  array  of  statuary  at  the  Exposition  forms  one  of  its  leading 
and  most  interesting  features.  Over  2.50  distinct  groups  and  hundreds  of  indi- 
vidual pieces  of  statuary  are  shown.  These  comprise,  among  others,  the 
following  groups  and  subjects:  "Nations  of  the  East,"  "Nations  of  the 
"West,"  "The  Colossal  '  Column  of  Progress,"  "Spring,"  "Summer," 
"Autumn,"  "Winter,"  "Fountain  of  Energy,"  "Fountain  of  Youth,"  "The 
Fountains  of  the  Rising  and  Setting  Sun,"  "Fire,"  "Water,"  "Earth"  and 
"Air,"  "Order  and  Chaos"  and  "Eternity  and  Change,"  "Modern  Civilization," 
"Armored  Horseman,"  "Philosopher,"  "Adventurer,"  "Priest,"  "Soldier," 
"Fountain  of  Eldorado,"  "Nature,"  "Ceres,"  "Beautv  and  the  Beast," 
"End  of  the  Trail,"  "The  Pioneer,"  "Cortez,"  "Pizarro,"  "The  Miner,"  "The 
Pirate,"  "Primitive  Man,"  "Primitive  Woman,"  "Steam,"  "Electric  Power." 
Besides  these  figures  and  groups  are  many  beautiful  friezes,  spandrels,  capitals, 
niches  and  columns  decorated  with  allegorical  subjects. 

While  color  is  the  dominant  note  of  the  Exposition — color  grouped  in 
large  masses  of  reds,  blues,  greens  and  golds — yet  over  all  prevails  harmony, 
the  palaces  themselves  being  of  a  soft,  neutral  tint — a  smoked  ivory — that  is 
at  once  pleasing  and  restful  to  the  eyes. 

f  372 1 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 

The  4,000,000  square  feet  of  roadways  have  been  packed  into  smoothness 
and  covered  with  resilient  red  rock  which  is  easy  on  the  feet  and  eliminates  the 
glitter  which  tires  the  eyes.  Hundreds  of  trees  have  been  transplanted  into 
places  along  the  drives  and  in  the  gardens.  More  than  ten  thousand  quick 
growing  vines  spread  their  tendrils  along  the  walls  of  the  buildings  and  the 
fence  enclosing  the  Exposition,  and  millions  of  blossoming  flowers  have  been 
planted  in  the  gardens  and  courts. 

BEAUTIFUL  NIGHT  EFFECTS. 

One  of  the  most  attractive  and  beautiful  features  of  the  great  Exposition 
is  the  electrical  illumination  at  night,  which  presents  a  scene  that,  once  witnessed, 
will  never  be  forgotten.  By  an  entirely  new  system  of  flood  lighting  a  soft, 
restful,  yet  perfect  light  pervades  the  courts,  revealing  in  wonderful  clearness 
the  facades  and  walls  of  the  palaces  and  the  natural  colors  of  the  shrubbery  and 
flowers.  By  peculiar  and  novel  lighting  devices  the  statuary  and  mural  paint- 
ings are  made  to  appear  with  even  heightened  effect.  Concealed  batteries  pro- 
ject powerful  yet  softened  rays  of  light  that  cause  tens  of  thousands  of  spe- 
cially prepared  glass  "jewels,"  hung  tremulously  upon  the  towers,  to  flash  and 
scintillate  like  great  diamonds,  emeralds  and  rubies.  At  a  point  on  the  Bay 
shore  there  has  been  erected  apparatus  that  weaves  in  the  night  sky  auroras  of 
ever-changing  color.  There  is  a  Scintillator  composed  of  a  battery  of  forty- 
eight  36-inch  searchlight  projectors  with  a  beam  candle  power  of  2,000,000,000. 
This  powerful  light  plays  on  the  cloud  banks  that  come  in  from  the  Bay. 


'  '.allium. iu.um 


|!ftl|l|MIHI!MHIMII| 





"The  Nations  of  the  East,"  symbolizing  life  in  the  Orient  and  surmounting  the 
Triumphal  Arch  leading  to  the  Court  of  Abundance. 

[373] 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 


The  Ohio  building,  reproduction  of  State  Capitol  at  Columbus. 

It  is  a  veritable  harmonic  symphony  of  light  and  the  special  program  each 
evening  is  known  as  "The  Dance  of  the  Light  God."  By  the  use  of  colored 
prisms  the  fog  is  painted  in  every  color  of  the  spectrum  and  "The  City  of  the 
Rainbow  Night"  is  an  appellation  which  is  well  merited.  A  spectacle  never 
before  attempted  is  offered  and  this  feat,  always  declared  impossible,  is  made 
easy  by  the  aid  of  nature's  fog,  which  gives  a  volatile  background. 

The  most  beautiful  night  effect  is  afforded  by  the  use  of  the  "jewels,"  glis- 
tening and  sparkling  from  the  walls  and  towers.  Ten  tons  of  these  "jewels" 
have  been  used  in  the  architectural  scheme.  They  are  47  millimeters  in  diame- 
ter and  were  manufactured  in  Austria  of  special  "flint"  glass,  so  called  because 
of  its  hardness.  In  the  process  of  manufacture  they  were  first  molded  in  facto- 
ries and  then  given  to  peasants  to  be  handcut  and  polished.  On  the  Exposition 
buildings  they  are  suspended  by  tiny  clasps  and  sway  in  the  slightest  breeze. 
The  colors  are  white,  canary,  ruby,  emerald  and  aquamarine,  and  they  are  used 
on  the  large  exhibit  palaces  to  outline  the  architectural  scheme.  The  Tower  of 
Jewels  is  studded  with  their  prismatic  colors  and  100,000  of  them  make  a  mass 
of  iridescent  color  433  feet  high  under  the  beams  of  the  great  searchlight  pro- 
jectors that  turn  every  night  at  the  Exposition  into  radiant  day. 

THE  AMUSEMENT  OR  CONCESSIONS  DISTRICT. 

Ever  since  the  days  of  the  Chicago  World's  Fair  in  1893,  the  term  "Mid- 
way" has  been  associated  with  amusement  features  of  expositions  large  and 
small.  St.  Louis  in  1904  called  its  amusement  district  "The  Pike".;  Seattle  had 
its  "Paystreak,"  and  Portland  its  "Trail."  San  Diego  calls  its  fun  department 
"The  Isthmus,"  and  San  Francisco,  mindful  of  the  object  of  its  great  celebra- 
tion, has  given  to  its  great  amusement  district  the  appropriate  title  of  "The 
Zone,"  which  bids  fair  to  replace  the  "Midway"  of  Chicago  in  popular  estimation 

f  374  "J 


PANAMA-PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 


as  the  name  of  the  amusement  district.  Sixty-five  acres  are  devoted  to  the 
amusement  features  of  the  Exposition.  This  division  of  the  great  fair  repre- 
sents an  outlay  of  over  $10,000,000.  and  the  200  concessions  that  have  been  ac- 
cepted are  of  the  highest  class,  combinin  g  the  features  of  fun  and  educational 
entertainment  in  a  manner  never  before  found  in  any  exposition. 

The  title,  "The  Zone,"  now  calls  to  mind  the  region  of  the  great  canal  and 
the  immense  work  that  the  United  States  army  has  done,  waging  a  war  only  on 
disease  and  nature's  topographical  barriers.  It  conjures  the  Herculean  labors 
that  have  been  performed  in  wrenching  apart  two  continents  for  the  gain  of  the 
whole  world. 

In  1915,  it  is  to  have  another  meaning  and  although  "The  Zone"  will  take 
its  place  with  "The  Midway"  of  the  Chicago  exposition,  "The  Pike"  of  St. 
Louis,"  "The  Paystreak"  of  Seattle,  and  "The  Trail"  of  Portland,  it  will  avoid 
the  coarser  features  of  these  and  still  retain  something  of  the  tone  that  is  im- 
plied in  the  thought  of  the  Panama  Canal  Zone. 

The  world  is  no  longer  "pleased  with  a  rattle  and  tickled  with  a  straw." 
The  first  stage  attempts  at  light  entertainment  were  of  the  type  of  "Gammer 
Gurton's  Needle,"  "Hycke  Scorner,"  and  other  types  of  low  comedy  in  both 
senses  of  the  word.  The  first  exposition  rather  followed  this  idea  that  a  touch 
of  the  risque  was  necessary  to  please  the  public  and  for  this  reason  there  was  a 
suggestion  of  vulgarity  in  the  first  names  that  designated  amusement  sections 
of  the  great  expositions. 


Typical  scene  in  "The  Zone,"  amusement  district  of  the  Exposition. 

[375] 


PANAMA-PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 

As  unclean  comedy  on  the  stage  has  given  way  to  the  clean,  so  has  the  idea 
of  clean  amusement  gained  in  popularity  in  expositions. 

A  baker's  dozen  of  the  large  attractions  that  are  to  be  seen  will  give  an  idea 
of  those  that  cover  65  acres  and  cluster  about  the  main  artery,  which  is  an  asphalt 
pavement  3,300  feet  long  and  more  than  100  feet  wide. 

These  attractions,  that  may  be  given  a  brief  description  here,  are:  "The 
Grand  Canyon  of  Arizona,"  "Yellowstone  National  Park,"  "Toyland  Grown 
Up,"  "Creation,"  "Submarines,"  Evolution  of  the  Dreadnaught,"  "  '49 
Camp,"  "Panama  Canal,"  "Mahomet's  Mountain,"  "Old  Nuremberg,"  "Japan 
Beautiful,"  "Chinese  Village"  and  the  "Aeroscope." 

The  Grand  Canyon  of  Arizona  represents  a  cost  of  $350,000.  It  was  built 
by  the  Santa  Fe  Railway  company  and  every  detail  of  the  great  natural  beauty 
is  reproduced  on  smaller  scale  but  so  that  the  impressions  of  the  exact  distance 
are  carried  out.  .  These  illusions  are  made  possible  by  perfectly  devised  and 
carefully  concealed  electrical  and  mechanical  devices. 

Eight  standard  gauge  observation  cars  are  in  place  and  on  these  the  vis- 
itor will  be  taken  over  the  half  hour  journey  from  the  bottom  of  the  canyon  to 
the  summit.  Geysers,  mountain  gorges  and  roaring  torrents  will  be  found  on 
the  trip.  Indian  villages  with  their  basket  and  pottery  workers  and  the  inter- 
esting occupations  of  the  Zuni,  Laguna,  Hopi,  and  Pueblo  Indians  will  be  ob- 
served on  the  journey. 

When  the  car  has  made  the  ascent,  a  storm  comes  whirling  through  the  can- 
yon. The  winds  roar  and  add  their  rush  to  the  sounds  of  the  rivers  which  swell 
into  mighty  torrents.  Darkness  falls  and  the  thunder  and  lightning  make  the 
visitor,  who  has  just  made  the  climb,  happy  that  he  has  escaped.  But  the  sun 
bursts  forth  and  leaves  the  canyon  glorified.  The  structure  is  700  feet  long  and 
300  feet  wide. 

"Yellowstone  National  Park"  stands  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  amusement 
area.  It  represents  a  cost  of  $250,000  and  was  built  by  the  Union  Pacific  Rail- 
way company.  In  the  background  of  this  attraction  is  Old  Faithful  Inn.  It 
is  a  lofty,  widespreading  structure  of  logs  with  a  touch  of  Swiss  about  its  gables 
and  windows.  Inside,  the  logs  are  everywhere  and  may  be  seen  in  partitions, 
balustrades,  steps  and  newel  posts.  The  lobby  has  the  four  cheerful  fireplaces, 
the  huge  corn  popper,  the  clock  with  the  twenty  foot  pendulum  and  the  log 
made  galleries.  Everything  is  a  faithful  reproduction  of  the  Old  Faithful  Inn 
of  the  real  Yellowstone. 

"Toyland  Grown  Up"  is  the  million  dollar  concession  of  Frederick  Thomp- 
son and  covers  fourteen  acres.  Thompson  has  earned  his  fame  as  a  purveyor  of 
amusements  by  building  Luna  Park  at  Coney  Island  and  the  Hippodrome  in 
New  York. 

In  this  new  enterprise  Thompson  has  reversed  the  fairy  tales  of  childhood 
and  the  giant's  stove,  his  skillet,  the  blocks  of  the  children,  Noah's  Ark,  and 
every  hero,  heroine  and  villain  of  nursery  rhyme  will  be  so  large  as  to  make 
the  humans  who  visit  the  toyland  appear  very  small  and  insignificant. 

"Creation"  is  one  of  the  prettiest  structures  on  the  grounds  and  exhibits  a 
$160,000  presentation  of  the  beginning  of  the  world  as  told  in  Genesis. 

"The  Submarines"  have  an  exceptional  educational  value  and  permit  the 
visitor  to  go  far  below  the  surface  of  the  water  and  observe  in  absolute  comfort 
the  interesting  sea  life  that  abounds  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

"The  Evolution  of  the  Dreadnaught"  combines  romance  with  history  and 

[376] 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 


shows  the  various  stages  in  arriving  at  the  great  superdreadnaughts  that  are  in 
the  midst  of  a  titanic  struggle  in  the  present  war. 

"The  '49  Camp"  is  of  great  interest  to  all  those  whose  friends  or  relatives 
came  to  the  west  during  the  gold  rush  of  1849  and  to  those  who  have  read  or 
heard  the  wonderful  stories  of  those  days.  The  types  of  those  days  are  repro- 
duced in  the  men  that  are  to  be  seen  around  the  1915  mining  camp,  the  repro- 
ductions being  as  true  as  historians  can  make  them. 


"Panama  Canal"  concession,  and  crowd  in  "The  Zone"  or  amusement  district. 

"The  Panama  Canal"  is  one  of  the  first  large  attractions  to  greet  the  eye  of 
the  visitor  on  entering  "The  Zone."  This  will  be  one  of  the  greatest  educational 
features  of  the  entire  Exposition,  for  those  who  have  not  made  the  trip  through 
the  real  canal  may  examine  a  miniature  canal  that  is  complete  to  the  smallest  de- 
tails. Every  part  of  the  present  canal  with  cities,  locks,  dams,  spillways  will  be 
shown  and  the  visitors  will  pass  through  from  one  ocean  to  the  other  in  a  pala- 
tial steamboat  and  the  only  difference  between  this  trip  and  the  real  trip  will  be 
in  the  length  of  time  consumed. 

"Mahomet's  Mountain"  is  one  of  the  thrilling  spots  of  the  concessions  dis- 
trict. It  is  a  monumental  pile  of  mystery  and  beauty.  It  is  150  feet  high  and 
100  feet  in  diameter. 

At  the  entrance  is  an  escalator  which  carries  the  visitor  to  a  mammoth  cave 
of  marvelous  illusions.  One  may  pass  through  a  roaring  waterfall  and  emerge 
perfectly  dry.    One  may  look  into  a  deep  well  and  see  the  center  of  the  earth  and 

T3771 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL  EXPOSITION 


Massachusetts  building,  reproduction  of  the  State  House  at  Boston. 

the  strange  creatures  that  may  be  found  there.  The  visitor  is  brought  into  close 
contact  with  Mars  and  the  antics  of  the  inhabitants  of  Mars  may  be  watched  with 
curiosity.  In  succession  one  may  explore  the  wonders  of  the  Cave  of  the  Winds, 
the  Palace  Cave  and  "Heaven  the  Beautiful." 

There  is  also  the  Cave  of  Mystery,  where  beautiful  statues  turn  to  life. 
Cathedral  Cave  draws  the  explorer  by  strains  of  music  played  on  the  stalactites 
by  an  electric  current.  At  the  top  of  the  mountain  is  "The  Devil's  Slide"  where 
the  adventurer  quickly  slides  into  the  open.  If  the  descent  is  too  rapid  there  are 
stairways  and  slower  progress. 

"Old  Nuremberg"  cost  $225,000,  and  because  of  the  war  that  is  now  devas- 
tating Germany,  this  city  that  has  been  called  the  "jewel  among  the  ancient 
cities  of  Europe"  has  added  interest.  It  is  an  exact  reproduction  of  the  orig- 
inal. It  was  in  this  city  that  the  "Iron  Maiden,"  one  of  the  most  horrible  means 
of  torture,  first  made  its  appearance,  and  this  will  be  reproduced.  Nuremberg 
was  the  center  of  art  and  invention  in  the  sixteenth  century  and  many  of  its 
treasures  will  be  found  in  the  duplicate  on  the  grounds  of  the  exposition.  The 
city  will  be  found  complete  even  to  the  old  pretzel  and  sugar  bakery. 

"Japan  Beautiful"  and  the  "Chinese  Village"  are  in  distant  parts  of  the 
district  and  each  is  a  tiny  wonderland.  Gardens,  quaint  houses,  dainty  tea 
rooms  and  the  life  to  be  found  in  such  communities  are  shown  with  fidelity. 
Each  cost  in  the  neighborhood  of  $250,000. 

r  378 1 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 


The  "Ferris  wheel"  at  Chicago  and  the  "teeter-totter"  at  Buffalo  were  in- 
teresting altitude  features  and  the  one  at  the  San  Francisco  Exposition  is  well 
known  as  the  "Aeroscope."  It  consists  of  a  giant  arm  of  steel,  mounted  on  a 
pivot  at  the  base,  and  picks  up  a  car  containing  30  passengers.  The  highest  point 
is  just  four  feet  higher  than  the  highest  point  of  the  Chicago  Ferris  wheel. 

In  "The  Streets  of  Cairo,"  which  is  a  city  within  a  city,  entertainment  of 
oriental  splendor  and  true  color  is  offered,  with  every  class  of  eating  establish- 
ment that  will  appeal  to  appetite  and  purse. 

Five  hundred  natives  of  Egypt  are  employed  on  the  grounds  and  are 
garbed  in  their  own  costumes.  They  have  charge  of  the  community  within  a 
space  of  250  feet  wide  and  400  feet  deep.  Here  in  this  little  wonderland,  prac- 
tically picked  from  the  old  world  and  set  down  in  the  midst  of  the  highest  cul- 
ture, will  be  found  the  Hindoo  theatre,  the  whirling  dervishes,  the  fakirs  and 
loud  fanatics. 

Professional  criers  preside  over  the  Temple  of  Mummies,  the  oriental  the- 
atre attracts  by  its  weird  music  of  flute  and  tom-tom,  the  sensational  torture 
dances,  the  dancing  maidens,  coffee  houses,  smoking  parlors,  fortune  tellers,  rug 
makers,  snake  charmers,  wrestlers  all  have  their  place  on  these  winding  streets, 
over  this  world  replica.  On  the  streets  in  front  are  the  camels  and  donkeys  which 
lend  the  last  touch  of  sincerity  to  this  quaint  picture  redolent  with  the  atmos- 
phere of  Egypt. 


New  Jersey  building — a  reproduction  of  the  famous  Trenton  barracks  occupied  by  General 
Washington  after  the  passage  of  the  Delaware  in  1776. 

r  379] 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 


ENTRANCE 


In  "The  Zone"  there  are  many  places  to  eat,  such  as  cafeterias,  dairy  lunches 
and  short-order  places,  and  the  prices  asked  are  moderate.  Meals  may  be  ob- 
tained on  the  grounds  at  prices  ranging  from  orders  of  cakes,  coffee  and  syrup 
at  fifteen  cents  to  several  dollars  a  la  carte  or  table  d'hote. 

The  lighting  of  the  Zone  is  a  tremendous  glare,  being  of  the  old  style 
"great  white  way"  type,  and,  therefore,  in  marked  contrast  to  the  restful  and 
subdued  lighting  scheme  of  the  Exposition  proper. 

STATE  AND  FOREIGN  BUILDINGS. 

Whether  from  the  greatest  of  old  world  capitals  or  the  smallest  of  Amer- 
ican villages,  the  visitor  to  the  Exposition  is  sure  to  find  a  building  that  will 
have  the  home  appeal  and  that  can  be  made  headquarters. 

The  New  Jersey  building  is  of  special  interest.  It  is  a  careful  reproduction 
of  Washington's  headquarters — the  famous  Trenton  Barracks — just  after  the 
crossing  of  the  Delaware  and  the  memorable  surprise  of  the  Hessians. 

Of  the  numerous  state  and  foreign  structures  there  are  many  that  stand 
out  with  peculiar  appeal.  Denmark,  China,  Turkey,  Hawaii,  Cuba,  Japan, 
Virginia,  New  York,  Oregon,  California  and  the  Philippines  are  a  few  that  are 
of  unusual  attractiveness. 

Chinese  workmen,  admitted  to  the  Exposition  grounds  direct  from  China 
by  special  act  of  Congress,  have  erected  a  marvelous  pavilion  that  represents  the 
world's  newest  republic.  It  presents  an  exact  duplicate  of  one  of  the  famous 
palaces  of  the  Forbidden  City. 

The  castle  of  Hamlet,  Prince  of  Denmark,  is  reproduced  on  a  smaller  scale 
in  the  pavilion  erected  by  Denmark.  The  castle  in  reality  is  Kronborg  Castle 
at  Elsinore.  Flanking  the  main  entrance  are  duplicates  of  the  old  tombstones 
of  King  Gorm  the  Old  and  Queen  Thyre,  "Denmark's  Mender,"  and  each  tomb- 
stone bears  the  quaint  historical  inscriptions  that  can  be  read  today  on  the  orig- 
inals. The  Lurs  prehistorical  musical  instruments  have  a  prominent  place  and  a 
fanfare  is  blown  on  them  at  regular  intervals  by  Danish  musicians. 

[380] 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 


C Jfei J§LlU| -.J-.~ J| 


The  historical  value  of  the  pavilion  is  enhanced  further  by  the  "Danskerhal- 
len,"  the  celebrated  chamber  which  is  placed  in  the  basement.  In  this  room  the 
Flatey-Book  is  reproduced  by  actual  photographs,  page  for  page,  taken  from 
the  original.  In  this  book  are  shown  the  Icelandic  Sagas  and  the  account  of 
Leif  Ericsson's  discovery  of  America. 

United  States  history  is  recalled  by  the  Virginia  building.  This  state,  which 
has  been  known  as  the  Mother  of  Presidents,  shows  Mount  Vernon,  the  home  of 
the  first  president.  Not  only  is  the  building  an  exact  reproduction  of  that  fa- 
mous structure,  but  the  interior  furnishings  are  those  actually  used  by  George 
Washington.  Mrs.  Nannie  Randolph  Heath,  of  Virginia,  who  acts  as  the  Vir- 
ginia hostess,  has  much  of  the  Washington  furniture  in  her  possession  and  has 
loaned  it  to  her  state  for  use  in  the  building. 

Hawaii  has  a  choice  spot  for  the  building  that  represents  this  little  land  of 
seductive  beauty.  The  site  is  at  the  edge  of  the  lagoon  of  the  Palace  of  Fine 
Arts  and  is  sequestered  in  the  midst  of  low-hanging  trees.  The  architecture  of 
the  building  follows  the  low-lying  tropical  type  so  common  in  Honolulu.  The 
building  is  in  the  form  of  a  cross  and  at  the  intersection  of  the  two  arms  there  is  a 
rotunda  containing  a  mezzanine  gallery. 

The  main  entrance  is  at  the  end  of  one  of  the  wings  of  the  cross  and  leads 
through  a  pergola  into  a  tropical  garden  roofed  with  glass.  At  either  side  are 
the  reception  and  waiting  rooms  and  beyond  the  gardens  is  the  rotunda.  Across 
this  rotunda  is  the  pit,  twenty  feet  in  diameter,  which  contains  a  representation 
of  one  of  the  burning  lakes  of  the  volcano  "Kilauea."  In  the  angles  between 
the  wings  radiating  from  the  rotunda  are  four  dioramas  consisting  of  artificially 
illuminated  scenes  of  typical  spots  in  Hawaii.  The  aquarium  is  equipped  with 
tanks  containing  the  rarest  and  most  beautiful  fish  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Music 
in  this  building  is  provided  by  Hawaiian  singers  and  musicians. 

Japan's  pavilion  is  placed  in  a  wonderful  Japanese  garden  and  both  build- 
ing and  garden  were  transported  from  Nippon.  The  pavilion  copies  an  original 

[381] 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 


The  state  building  of  Texas,  during  dedication  ceremonies. 

that  has  weathered  the  storms  for  600  years  and  neither  the  new  nor  the  old  struc- 
ture has  ever  utilized  a  single  nail.  Trees,  plants,  stones  and  even  lawns  were 
brought  across  the  Pacific  to  make  the  gardens  everything  they  purport  to  be. 

In  contrast  to  the  horticultural  beauty  of  the  Japanese  pavilion  is  the  build- 
ing and  garden  of  the  Philippines.  More  than  4,000  orchid  plants  have  been 
brought  to  the  Exposition  grounds  on  United  States  government  transports  for 
display  in  the  Philippines'  building.  The  rarest  orchids  to  be  found  in  the  world 
come  from  the  Philippines  and  the  several  hundred  varieties  in  the  Exposition 
nurseries  represent  many  thousand  dollars. 

The  Philippine  building  is  Spanish  colonial  in  style.  It  is  one  story  in 
height,  triangular  in  shape  and  has  a  large  patio  in  the  center.  The  inner  sides 
of  the  wings  resemble  conservatory  construction. 

Oriental  beauty  and  luxury  crown  the  $300,000  pavilion  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire.  The  exterior  of  the  pavilion  is  crowned  with  domes  and  minarets  in 
approved  Turkish  style.  In  the  east  of  the  structure  is  a  mosque  of  rare  beauty, 
and  a  kiosk  will  be  another  attractive  feature.  The  interior  of  the  pavilion  is  a 
replica  of  the  interior  of  one  of  the  palaces  of  the  Sultan. 

The  main  hall  contains  the  court  of  official  exhibits,  the  offices  of  the  Otto- 
man commissioners,  a  parlor  of  oriental  luxury  for  ladies  and  a  men's  lounging 
room  attractively  decorated.  On  the  second  floor  are  the  salon,  ball  room  and 
galleries  and  also  a  suite  of  apartments.  In  the  cafe,  auditorium  and  dining- 
room  Turkish  musicians  offer  native  music. 

\  382  1 


PANAMA^PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 


If  there  should  come  to  the  Exposition  a  visitor  who  does  not  find  a  build- 
ing he  can  call  home  and  headquarters,  the  California  building  will  answer  his  or 
her  needs  as  the  host  building.  It  is  the  largest  state  building  ever  erected  at 
an  exposition. 

The  California  building  faces  the  Bay  at  the  beginning  of  the  area  devoted 
to  the  states.  Inside  the  driveway  arch  of  the  south  arcade  is  the  forecourt, 
which  is  reminiscent  of  the  cloisters  of  the  old  missions  that  have  played  their  ro- 
mantic part  in  the  history  of  California. 

The  first  patio  that  the  visitor  enters  will  not  look  like  a  creation  of  the  pres- 
ent ;  and  it  is  not.  The  great  hedges  that  stand  twice  the  height  of  a  man's  stat- 
ure have  been  flourishing  for  forty  years  on  the  one  spot.  In  the  center  of  the 
north  facade  of  the  forecourt  stands  a  statue  of  Junipero  Serra,  extending  a 
silent  welcome. 

Behind  this  statue  stands  the  great  tower,  70  feet  square  and  120  feet  high, 
and  surmounted  by  four  minor  bell  towers.  In  the  base  of  this  tower  is  the  main 
entrance  foyer.  The  grand  reception  room  is  56x86  feet  and  the  ballroom  is 
88  feet  wide,  168  feet  long  and  42  feet  high.  Over  the  grand  reception  room  is 
the  roof  garden  with  its  fountains,  hedges,  flowers  and  wide,  inviting  seats.  The 
president  of  the  Exposition  will  have  offices  in  this  building. 

A  state  building  that  would  be  a  fit  companion  building  for  the  Fifth  Ave- 
nue mansions  is  the  one  erected  for  New  York.  This  beautiful  structure  is  just 
west  of  the  California  building  and  is  four  stories  in  height,  has  twelve  rooms  for 
servants,  twenty  chambers  for  the  state  commissioners,  a  suite  for  the  governor, 


Utah  state  building,  replete  with  works  of  art. 

[383] 


PANAMA-PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL   EXPOSITION 

a  meeting  room  for  the  board,  an  oval  reception  room  for  women  and  eighteen 
private  baths. 

The  ceiling  of  the  ballroom  cost  .$10,000  and  the  room  is  54x70  feet  with  a 
balcony  on  two  sides.  On  the  first  floor  there  is  a  music  room,  ladies'  reception 
room,  a  ladies'  writing  room,  and  writing  and  reception  rooms  for  men.  A  cor- 
ridor runs  the  entire  length  of  the  building  from  east  to  west  and  the  floor  is  of 
tile  with  the  coat  of  arms  of  the  state  conspicuously  interwrought.  There  is  a 
large  dining  room,  a  private  dining  room  and  a  kitchen  with  $3,000  worth  of 
the  latest  culinary  appliances. 

Oregon's  building,  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  the  buildings  of  the  states 
of  California,  New  York  and  New  Jersey,  harks  back  to  the  Parthenon  and  also 
gives  proper  attention  to  the  rich  natural  resources  of  the  state.  Instead  of  the 
marble  pillars  of  the  Parthenon  the  Oregon  building  uses  giant  logs  with  the 
bark  intact.  There  are  16  of  these  great  pillars  on  the  north  and  south  sides  and 
ten  on  the  east  and  west  sides. 

Every  state  and  territory  has  been  given  one  of  these  pillars.  Every  foot 
of  the  timber  that  has  gone  into  this  attractive  building  was  sent  from  the  Ore- 
gon forests  and  was  sawed  and  planed  in  a  temporary  mill  on  the  site.  Another 
distinction  that  has  come  to  Oregon  is  the  giant  flag  pole  with  the  ten  foot  star 
and  50  foot  flag  that  marks  the  site.  This  pole  is  the  tallest  single  piece  flag  pole 
in  the  world  and  was  the  gift  of  the  citizens  of  Astoria,  Oregon,  and  was  cut 
from  an  Oregon  fir  tree. 

Indiana  is  represented  at  the  Exposition  by  a  homelike  Hoosier  residence 
that  will  invite  many  more  than  Hoosiers.  Inside  is  a  library  of  more  than  15,000 
volumes,  made  up  entirely  of  the  works  of  Indiana  authors.  Other  Indiana  in- 
dustries will  be  represented  by  the  furnishing  and  outfitting,  and  the  fireplace 
will  be  made  of  Bedford  stone. 

Two  states  have  reproductions  of  their  state  capitols.  Massachusetts  has 
a  duplicate  of  the  state  house  at  Boston  and  Ohio  has  reproduced  the  state  Cap- 
itol at  Columbus. 

Cuba  brings  atmosphere  in  its  pavilion,  which  is  of  Spanish-American 
architecture.     It  is  two  stories  in  height  with  a  tower  at  one  corner.     On  three 
sides  stretch  the  wide  veranda  common  to  Cuban  haciendas  and  in  the  center  of 
the  building  is  a  large  glass-covered  patio  filled  with  Cuban  plants  and  flowers. 

The  distinction  of  being  the  first  foreign  pavilion  completed  went  to  Hon- 
duras and  the  first  state  building  to  be  ready  was  that  of  Idaho,  which  was  dedi- 
cated on  May  14,  1914. 

Washington,  North  Dakota,  Wisconsin,  Kansas,  Illinois,  Pennsylvania, 
Nevada,  West  Virginia,  and  Colorado  have  buildings  that  reflect  credit  on  those 
states.  Canada  has  a  fine  building.  Argentina,  with  the  largest  appropriation 
of  anjr  nation,  $1,700,000,  has  a  picturesque  structure.  Bolivia,  Sweden,  New 
Zealand,  Australia  and  the  Netherlands  have  pavilions  of  high  artistic  merit. 

With  its  delightful  location,  its  mammoth  palaces,  charming  courts  and 
vistas  of  unsurpassable  beauty;  its  unique  architecture  and  wealth  of  art  treas- 
ures; its  cosmopolitan  group  of  domestic  and  foreign  pavilions,  and  above  all 
with  its  hundred  thousand  exhibits  of  the  world's  recent  progress,  the  Panama- 
Pacific  International  Exposition  will  surely  prove  to  be  the  world's  greatest 
attraction  until  the  closing  day,  December  4,  1015.  The  hospitality  of  Cali- 
fornia is  famed  over  all  the  earth,  and  "San  Francisco  invites  the  world." 

[384] 


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